Syntagma Grammaticum , or an easy and methodical explanation of Lily’s Grammar , whereby the mystery of this art is more plainly set forth both for the better help of all schoolmasters in the true order of teaching, and the scholars far more easy attainment of the Latin tongue

Syntagma Grammaticum, or an easy and methodical explanation of Lily’s Grammar, whereby the mystery of this art is more plainly set forth both for the better help of all schoolmasters in the true order of teaching, and the scholars far more easy attainment of the Latin tongue.

By Thomas Granger Master of Arts. Peterhouse College, Cantabrigia.

Scientiarum ianitrix grammatica.

LONDON

Printed by Thomas Dawson.

1616.

{n. p.}

Ornatissimo viro, bonis omnibus et literatis amicissimo, ac maecenati meo benignissimo, Iohanni Leventhorpe equiti aurato perpetuam faelicitatem.

Cogitanti mihi tantillum (vir magnanime) cui primitias agri mei utcumque frugiferi sincero corde, non blandulis manibus offerrem, derepente tu occurrebas eo munere dignissimus. Primum, quia ut ipse non solum es genio, et ingenio singulari, sed etiam ω̅ολυγράμματος licet modeste solitus es dicere te non σοφον, sed φιλὀν φιλοσοφῶν esse, quod ego veram ὲξοχ? veram ὀυγενείαν semper duxi: ita et benevolo, propensoque es animo in omnes literatos, eosque praecipue, qui, quod tribuit musa sagax, non invide apud se detinent, sed θεομιμ? μενοι in commune conferunt. Deinde officii mei ratio postulat, in rusticorum more beneficia tua in me immerito saepe collata deglutirem, ut aliquod animi grati testimonium exhiberem. Praeterea, quod cerno iam animo, quam tutus mihi sub nominis tui patrocinio futurus sit transitus. Ac spero me hoc tuae insignitum clientelae σημείῳ peramice hospitio exceptum iri, praesertim a sacrae quolibet cultore Minervae. Quo consilio haud immaturo quidem levidense munusculum hoc ex ingenioli {A2} mei cornucopiola depromptum, meritissime, lubentissime que tibi do, dedicoque, obnixe petens, ut illud favente, ac benigno animo accipias, quemadmodum a me animo tui observantissimo exhibetur: hac in re Persarum regem Artaxerxem imitatus, qui, cum pauper quidam Sinaeta nomine, aquam ei utraque vola e flumine Cyro exhaustam obtulisset (nam ex lege omnes pro suis facultatibus Δῶϱα, id est, munera regi praeterequitanti offerentes coram apponebant) grato inquit, animo munus tuum accipio, et in pretiosissimis numero iussis insuper Eunuchis, ut in auream phialam de manibus aquam exciperent: ita si tu (clarissime vir) pro summa tua humanitate, ingenuoque candore Δῶϱον τ?το qualecumque non in auream phialam, sed in fictilem acceptationis tuae urnulam excipere dignatus fueris, totius voti me compotem feceris. Vale (vir generosissime) quem Deus optimus maximus protegat, et conservet aeternum. Gal, Iunius, 1615.

Dignitati tuae servus addictissimus Thomas Granger.

{n. p.}

The Epistle to the Reader, containing the general theoric or true grounds of teaching.

There be two main errors, gentle reader, both in teaching and learning, and not so great as common: doubtfulness and confusion. Doubtfulness sometime in the master, and always in the scholar. First, in the master, it is a great error to think that the scholar can profit anything at all by that which he himself, not well understanding, teacheth doubtfully. Again, it is an error not much less that when he, perfectly understanding what he teacheth, regardeth not much whether and how the scholar understandeth and conceiveth the same.

For the reformation of the former, the master must use time and diligence, yea, and meditation also, if need so require that it being first made his own, he may freely and confidently propound it to the scholar, which proceeding not rawly, but ripely from him, the scholar may apprehend, conceive, and digest the same the better. Moreover, when it proceedeth indistinctly and harshly (hiulce) from the master, the scholar conceives a greater difficulty thereof, whereby he is discouraged at the first entry and beginning of his labour, grudging also in his mind at the master’s rigour and unjust dealing, that he should propound and require perfectness of that in him which seemeth difficult enough to himself.

For the amendment of the second, the master {A3} must imagine that those things which are easiest to his understanding are most hard and difficult to the scholars. Therefore it requires good skill and art to condescend from the strength of his man’s understanding, reason, and imagination, and to apply and intermingle them to and with the scholars, gently and softly drawing him after him knowing this: that the scholar hath the same faculties of the soul, perfect but weak, and therefore hath naturally a desire, and rejoicing in that whereby he receiveth increase of strength to perfection, as contrarily he hath no pleasure in that which is too strong for him, no more than the sucking child hath of strong meats. This appears evidently in their plays and sports wherein they do sort, and gather themselves according to their agreeable or differing natures and wits, which thing is natural and common to them with trees, plants, beasts etc., which rejoice in the fellowship of their own kind (but being mixt with others are solitary, even in company) and in their own kind delight most in them, that come nearest to their individual natures and properties. Hominum quoque mos est, as Gnatho knows well enough. And if the master in his discretion and judgement can so play the pantomime applying himself to the scholar, and stealing him as it were by guile, he shall easily perceive the scholar to be much more willing and towards, and in short time find fruitful success of his labours.

But if the parents, which most commonly come in like lords of misrule disturbing and confounding both master and scholar, would dissemble and restrain a little their natural affections with the bridle of reason, taking upon them the person {n. p.} and nature of a master as they should, again, if the master would be answerable to them, taking upon him the person and affection of a father, as he ought, the scholar, knowing the resolution of his parents, would buckle himself to please his master, and to follow his book with diligence, being driven thereto on the one side with the strangeness of his parents, and assured on the other side with the kindness and familiarity of the master. Neither can the strangeness of the parents be such, but their natural love and affection will easily appeare to the child. Nor yet can the familiarity of the master be such, but that his friendliness (as we say), and therefore matter of fear and awe will appear, otherwise Nimia familiaritas parit contemptum.

The child that is thus contained in his duty by this mixt love and fear shall follow his book with willingness, joy and delight, and shall profit marvellously in a short space, being but of indifferent capacity. And if the parents shall manifest their love to their children, especially upon their master’s commendations for their learning and dutifulness, sometimes counterfeiting the same as occasion shall require, it shall encourage them to delight and glory in the performance thereof. But where the case stands contrary to this that I have said, it hath also a contrary effect. There was yet never any that by love and fair means only attained to learning, neither that by mere compulsion, if they attained to some, long retained the same, at least wise did and good therewith, and in neither of them came it to any proof.

Furthermore, doubtfulness in the scholar is a main error in learning, seeing that he which {A4} doubteth knoweth nothing, and therefore learneth nothing (for learning is knowledge) unless it be to talk he cannot tell of what. And this is too common a fault. For in most schools whereas a scholar hath repeated his lesson perfectly and understandingly to the judgement of a stranger, if he shall be well examined in the same, he will either give many answers (I mean guesses) or else will his lips go fast, but he dares say nothing (a foolish kind of lip labour) least he should speak amiss, not knowing the right from the wrong. Whereupon he is thought to be defective in understanding or memory and is counted a dullard, whereas it is but his doubtful learning. For otherwise, if he were sure of that which he would speake or had a more distinct knowledge thereof, he would give a bold and witty answer, yea, and take pleasure in being opposed.

The greatest reason of this uncertainty and doubtfulness is because that children are fantastical and full of imaginations, their understandings weak, their apprehensions confused and reason unperfect; and because their blood is hot and boiling, they are fickle and restless, minding nothing but varieties and novelties being moved to and from with every light object, noting and telling what they hear and see, imitating that they see done of others, and are soon wearied with short continuance even in that they most desired in so much that even their play, if they were held to it by rule, would be as wearisome to them as learning, or if their master should appoint them their play, though otherwise they themselves would happily have chosen the same before any other game, yet will it soon be tedious to them. {n. p.}

Upon this consideration, to avoid doubtful learning, the master must stir them up to attention in their lecture giving, using often to demand as he shall see them careless: what he last spake? What be the words following? What point is at such a word etc. giving reasons why he construeth thus and not thus, expounding their lesson to them in plain words, and in such style and manner as is familiar to them, illustrating the meaning by such vulgar examples and comparisons as are known to them, or may be easily apprehended of them: otherwise it were to teach them other things and to put new fancies into them, which will make them more ignorant, and forgetful of that which is then taught them. For children’s wits, note well, are confounded with varieties at once, being contrary to the course of nature as shall hereafter appear. After lecture given, let him hear someone or other verbatim as it was given, and so remaining ever in the school with them cause them to do his appointments diligently, and that by themselves severally without help one of another making them bold to ask him what they doubt of. Neither let him immediately tell them, but by many interrogations and bouts, as we say, bring them to tell themselves of it. This will cause the child to do his work with understanding and discourse, and make him more careful to remember what he hath learned and what his master tells him, whereas this immediate telling, prompting, and looking in dictionaries makes them do all things by rote and like parrots, quite besides grammar.

Also let him never suffer them to have any toys about them or near them, either brought from {n. p.} home, or devised there: for if such things be present, they will have them always in their hands or in their minds so that, by means of such cowling imaginations, nothing that they do, much less than is told them, can make any fast impression in them, but brokenly and confusedly floateth in their heads. Whereby it commeth to pass that which they have already learned is no president or furtherance to them in that which followeth after, every lesson after many weeks, months, and years being as strange to them as the first was, for any certain knowledge or understanding they have of what they say.

And to speak as the thing is, this is the cause why that many, which are fit for the university falsely so supposed, and some which are at the university (I will not say some graduates), stand as much need of a grammar in their studies as of any other book. For coming to public exercises there, or but in their tutor’s chambers, and therefore careful to do well and fearful to amiss, they begin but then to feel their wants, and most of them to complain of their own in learning.

Now, if anyone ask me why they can make epistles, themes, and speak Latin in the country, and come so to be plunged afterward, I answer it is because they seemed to do well by guess, having gotten by long continuance a certain habit of guessing, that is, parsing and construing and giving rules by certain notes and marks, as the art doth play his feats by observing his master’s gestures, staff, becks, or looks, I mean by their master’s words and certain form of speaking in his questions and demands, rather {n. p.} than by any understanding of the order of grammar, or true meaning of the rule.

And so by much teaching and long continuance (their apprehension and discourse of reason waxing riper as they wax elder), they can begin to construe alone, but by very small direction of grammar. And coming to make school-excercises can partly steal unreasonably, and partly imitates their authors making little or no use of grammar or any part thereof, but doing all by apish imitation and gross theft, being sure of this only, that their author writes true Latin and good matter; and so by guessing what he speakes, tie it to some other such like matter, stolen out of some other place whereby it comes in the end to be a great mishapen body, with never a sound joint in it, knit together with sinews of sand. This is the spoil of their invention, reason, and understanding that few recover till by reason of age, study, and meditation, unless they be very pregnant witted, they come to ripeness of judgement. But some feel the discommodity of this corruption, as long as they live.

The second main error is confusion. The principles of all arts and sciences are natural to the soul, infused into it in the creation, which coming to a well disposed and rightly organized body, as the good musician comes to a good instrument, retaineth the same pure and undefiled, which is called the light of nature, not being disordered and darkened with the unaptness and contagion thereof. Therefore of the diverse disposition and habitude of the body arise those infinite varieties and differences of wits, one being especially apt to one thing, another to another thing, some, as we say, to all things, others to nothing. Now the gathering {n. p.} of sequels and conclusions from those lights or principles by the discourse of reason through observation and experience is generally called wisdom or art, which it effecteth by the two properties thereof, distinction and method. By distinction it separateth and divideth confused and differing things, as all things in the beginning were separated out of the confused mass or “chaos”, wherein they were uniformally contained, one from another. And by method it orderly disposeth and placeth all things of the same nature and kind in order, even as in the frame of the world we see how everything is disposed in wonderful order. Whereupon art is rightly defined to be the comprehension of certain rules or precepts of the same kind to some profitable end. And as it is after this manner obtained, so is it also taught another by the same.

First, there must be principles, or light of nature, in the scholar, otherwise light is not comprehended of darkness. Then the master must apply himself to him by distinct and methodical teaching. Otherwise, he shall increase confusion and breed in him a kind of undistinct and confused knowledge, or rather imaginations, which bring forth nothing: not mending, but marring the wit, making the scholar more foolish, not through defect of nature in the scholar, but disorderly teaching, which instead of helping doth hinder it. Which confusion being made habitual, the scholar coming by reason of age to some maturity of reason and judgement, cannot without much ado reform though he be of good wit, being like to those that having been disorderedly and rudely brought up in the country, and afterward coming to some great place {n. p.} or attaining to some higher calling, do feel the discommodity thereof a long time, whereas they that have been brought up in hill, as if it were in hall, can with little endeavour fit themselves to any thing without any difficulty.

Grammar is therefore for most just cause called the key of arts, not only because it teacheth languages, without the knowledge whereof we can understand nothing, but that which is written in our mother tongue: and so should be deprived of those arts which are invented or perfected by men of other languages, but also because it is a lively pattern and president to the wit in the study of other arts whatsoever, though not for the matter, yet for the manner and method. And if the grammar shall be distinctly, perfectly and methodically taught and learned, it is not only half the languages, but half the matter. For even as he that hath perfectly learned grammar hath gotten half the language, so he that is perfect in the method of an art, oration, epistle, etc., hath half the knowledge and understanding thereof. Futhermore experience teacheth that what we are taught, and as we are taught when we are young, maketh such an impression in our wits and memories, as that it becometh natural unto us, neither can we wholly relinquish nor forget the same. This both common observation and daily experience proveth, for they that have been brought up with good schoolmasters do also prove good schoolmasters. Contrarily, they that have been taught confusedly and ignorantly, though more by their own aptness than by their master’s good preparation, they come to be good scholars in the university, yet are they new to begin again, for matter of grammar {n. p.} and teaching, which they find to be as troublesome a piece of work as all their university’s study and practise, if ever they make good country scholar. And this is not one of the least and rarest causes why there are more good scholars then good schoolmasters. But to speak of this abuse of confused teaching in particulars, wherein it is commonly offended, would be too tedious in this place, which together with the reformation thereof I intend to speak of in another treatise.

To proceed further. This error of preposterous teaching is altogether committed in the prevention of nature. For all do build upon the foundation of custome and conjecture, not upon the rock. Therefore though some do seem to do very well sometimes, yet it is more than they perfectly know, and that which a man doth not knowingly (scienter) it cannot truly be said to be well done: it may be bonum factum, “a good deed”, yet if it wants the spirit and life of benefactum, of “well done”, it hath not a lively effect or efficacy in the scholar, except the scholar be of a riper wit and quicker imagination than the master, as sometimes falleth out. But he that speaketh and teacheth knowingly and maturely, exhibiteth the commentary of his words in his countenance and gesture.

Nature, then, is the rock or foundation of art. He therefore that teacheth him to whom nature hath denied ability to learn, or that teacheth anything to him that hath ability before that nature showed forth her powers, do both build on the sand, and teach the parrot to speak. And such learning is forgotten as soon as it is gotten. For the hasting of nature beyond settled and constant course is {n. p.} not helping, but hindering. That learning therefore that is gotten or rather taught in the outrunning of nature is a floating imagination, or rather wandering phantasm or dream, whose ground is the master’s breath, and not sensible feeling and conceit thereof in the scholar’s reason. For it is not in the willer nor in the runner, but in nature that giveth the gift with the measure thereof, and perfecteth the same by her own science and in her own time. And it is our science to observe, and know nature’s science, and to apply ourselves unto it: for as the Philosopher saith (Physics book two, chapter two), ϰ̔ τεχνϰ̓ μιμειτου τ? ϕὺοιν, “art imitateth nature”. Therefore, though fantastic people are most delighted and in love with their own antiques or groundless buildings, yet this is the only true ground and science. And how far soever we differ and disagree from it, even so much greater is our error, seeing that art is the scholar of nature. Many, for want of due consideration and knowledge hereof, do miserably torment both their scholars and themselves, the one being the other’s torturer, whereas it is a great delight to teach and to learn, if so be that the scholar be not of too froward and perverse will, the master too impatient, and the ignorant parents too much meddling.

For the clearer understanding hereof, that thou mayst imitate and apply thyself to nature in thy practice of teaching, observe first the science and work of nature in vegetables. The corn of wheat being sown in the ground, nature, which is the invisible substance, or seed, first worketh on the sperm or floor thereof, receiving so much perfection and strength from the same as fitteth it for the womb of the earth. Then it fasteneth the attractive {n. p.} mouth or root in the earth drawing nourishment there from, as the child doth from the body of the mother. Afterward it cometh to birth appearing out of the earth a small spire hardly to discern from any other graine, which shortly groweth into a leaf, after which grow other leaves: then the blade which is strengthened and defended with the leaves after that the ear etc. Herein, and in all other things, observe the imagination or science of this cunning artificer nature, how distinctly and methodically she contriveth, and in time perfecteth the building up of herself. The carpenter or graver by his science or imagination beginneth, and perfecteth his work without himself, but nature within herself: even as if the science or imagination of the ingraver should be operative within the tree, distinctly and methodically framing and fashioning an image of the purest and best thereof, but expelling the gross and unprofitable, as bows, bark, knots, etc.

And as the art of engraving is uniformally contained in the mind of the carver, but when a piece of wood is offered to him to work on, the uniformal and invisible vertues one after another orderly and methodically show themselves in the framing, fashioning, and growing of this unshapen log (which is the element of the work) into a pleasant image etc. Even so in the seed of all vegetables or growing things and of all sensibles, that is, of beasts, foules, fishes etc., is uniformally contained the whole natures, properties, qualities, colours, fruits, actions, etc. of the plant or beast whatsoever. Which after that it hath a womb or matrice beginneth to work out of it a body upon itself. The full growth and perfection of which {n. p.} works or edifice plainely showeth to man’s senses what nature or science lay hid in the seed invisibly.

Now for to reflect this light of the macrocosm, or the great world, upon the microcosm, or man, that the schoolmaster may ground his teaching on nature, especially the true foundation following her even in her steps, without aberration or extravagation, and not upon bare imaginations, uncertain conjectures and imitation of others.

Sperma hominis, most ignorantly called of some excrementum lumborum, being indeed the very prime and quintessence of his elementary body, is like the “chaos” or first matter, whereupon the spirit of nature or imagination, being moved, is made living, containing in it invisibly and uniformally the whole nature of man, his brutal wisdom, reason, fantasy, sense, conditions, complexion, qualities, actions, etc. I speak not of the immortal soul, but of her plasma or vessel, which vertues, powers or faculties one after another show themselves distinctly and methodically in time and season. First the vegetable vertue of the invisible seed, or spirit of imagination, even as the wheat corn, worketh on the sperm, adapting (fovente solummodo matrice) the first degree of the body’s formation therefrom. Then it draweth matter from the body of the mother (non solum fovente, sed pascente matrice) whereon it worketh and frameth the liver, heart, brains, and other members, and is called “embryo”. After that the vegetable vertue hath thus far distinctly and methodically brought and wrought the matter, then moreover the sensible vertue, and first of feeling, showeth itself. And now hath it made itself a fit tabernacle or house {B} for the supercelestial substance, the soule, which comes not into it by propagation of generation, but by immediate creation and infusion. And is now called νήπιος, an infant.

After this followeth motion, and having such strength and perfection as the matrice can afford it, it cometh to birth, that is passeth out of the matrice of the little world into the womb of the great world wherein it worketh and whereout it draweth food unto the perfection of itself, as it did in the first matrice. And being perfected in this great womb, there being no other matrice to receive it for further perfection, it beginneth to decline by little and little, then dieth, and is dispersed into this great body out of which it was taken at the first: the soul also returning to God that gave it.

Now, being come into the matrice of the great world, it receiveth further strength and perfection from the common air, the mother’s milk, etc., whereby the other senses are actually perfected. After this, the common sense showeth itself, which apprehendeth the species, or, as I may say, the visions of the outward senses, but at the first uniformally. Then the imaginative virtue or fantasy appeareth, which at the first receiveth those species or shows from the common sense, but as uniformal and indistinct glances. After it appeareth the memorative faculty, which at the first remembereth uniformally and indistinctly also, but afterward some one vehement phantasm maketh distinct impression, etc.

And thus, when all the organical faculties have obtained convenient perfection, then the intellective virtue or understanding appeareth forth in operation, {n. p.} which is proper only to the reasonable soul that reflecteth itself, both upon itself and upon all things. And this it doth orderly and methodically. First by apprehension of simple notions, not as they are mere shows in the fantasy, but as having an affection to argue or to be argued. Secondly, then, by composition or joining together things agreeing by affirmation, and separating and disjoining things disagreeing by negation, called propositions affirmative and negative. Thirdly, after that, by syllogizing or reasoning, videlicet, confirming or refuting questions by this or that reason or argument. Fourthly by ordination or methodical disposition of things of the same kind declared, explicated, amplified, illustrated, and also confirmed etc., by arguments and syllogistical discourse, placing the most general and simplest in the first place, and so by orderly descent coming to the most special, and compound in the last place.

Now, after that these faculties of the understanding have received thus much perfection, then the Κοίναι ἐννοι̌αι, that is, the common notions of the knowledge of God and truth in the mind, and the “synteresis”, the knowledge and discretion of good from evil in the conscience begin to appeare and show forth themselves. This is the order and progress of nature, or rather of divine wisdom in nature. Wherein observe and see how precisely and constantly the simple and general faculties, being the meanest, do first appear: afterward, the more special and compound being more excellent, till the whole man be perfected and complete in the most special and most compound. And note that this order of nature cannot possibly be inverted: that is to say, the sensitive power cannot prevent the vegetative, {B2} and so of all the rest, no more than the tree can grow downward into the root. Note also that the coaction, or violent compulsion of nature, I mean the hastening of her beyond her course, is the destruction of nature, at least the hindering of her work.

Even such like is the progress of every art, both in the teaching and learning, and therefore of grammar also: for our own experience may teach us that a man cannot teach or learn “syntaxis” without the knowledge of “etymology” no more than to read before he know his letters. But put the case that he could do them, with what exceeding great difficulty should it be? For at least wise he must have the clarum lumen or understanding, and knowledge of the first inventers, and to learn both together, for haste were confused and indiscreet teaching and learning, and therefore as good as no teaching or learning at all.

Also the violent coaction of the learner, I mean the hastening of him beyond the semblable maturity or ripeness of his natural parts or faculties, is the destruction of his wit and learning, at least wise the hindrance of both, according to the proverb festinans canis caecos parit catulos; and the abortive child either dieth soon or, as we say, thrives not in his person, at last wise a long time. This conturbing and disturbing of the child’s wits makes both him to hate learning, and the master to hate teaching, being both wearied and over-mighted, as we say, about an easy piece of work, and all by taking the wrong end first in hand, as they that would catch wet eels by their tales.

For the reformation of this error, the master {n. p.} must know that art is the reflection of the reasonable soul upon nature, i.e. both upon all things and upon herself, which is proper only to reasonable creatures: wherein as everyone excelleth, so much the more wise is he counted, and is so indeed, but they that are altogether defective herein, are commonly called “naturals”. Now, this reflexion and the growth thereof is in all things answerable to nature itself, and the growth thereof, as before I have plainely showed. He therefore that taketh a child to teach, must know that he hath the matter “chaos” (ἰλ?) or seed, wherein the art or arts that he would teach are uniformally or potentially contained. And although in regard of the act of teaching he may be called pater, as Saint Paul calls himself in the work of regeneration, yet in regard of the learner that having the arts of his master, potentially in himself doth suck and extract matter of art from his master, for the building by, and perfecting of himself, he is also called mater, as the same Apostle terms himself.

Therefore, the master must first frame himself to be as the “sperm”, exhibiting the first elements to the scholars’ wit, which are the most simple and general in art, and answerable to the vegetative faculty in nature. After that must prooceed further, and exhibit himself as the matrice of the microcosm that the scholar not lingering longer, then need requireth on the elements, nam non progredi est regredi, may proceed forward both in learning and exercise, making observing always how nature multiplieth herself by degrees, and not suddenly or hastily. For this he must know by observation that as he is to the scholar a matrice, as the sperm is to the seed, the earth to plants, the womb to the infant, and {B3} the great world to all things, so the scholar must receive nothing from him but that whereof he hath a faculty or ability in himself et pro modulo facultatis to be produced into act, and perfected by the master’s teaching. For though the seed be sown in the best ground that is, and in variety of grounds for trial sake, and have all the cost that may be bestowed thereon, yet cannot this add or diminish anything to the nature of the seed, ex spinis non colliguntur uvae. Therefore ought not nature to be compelled, nor struggled to much withal: seeing that teaching is nothing but plantatio et rigatio, “planting and watering”, as Saint Paul saith in spiritual things.

Whereupon let him know that not everything which he teacheth, though never so plain and profitable, doth better the scholar much, but that which he is inclined unto by his own “genius”, or spirit. For nature arrideth that which is agreeable to her and perfective of her, and though the thing be great and weighty in the accomplishment and attainement thereof to others in regard of the means, yet is she not discouraged, but comprehending in general the way and possibility thereof by small moments obtaineth the butt, or mark of her inclination and desires. Hereupon ariseth that common speech proverbially used, “that which will be, will be, and who would ever have thought it”. On the other side, nature is froward and adverse to that which dissenteth from her, having no pleasure nor delight therein, and therefore, though the thing be easy, and means great to the view and judgement of others, yet after much ado, this is the conclusion and fruit, opera et impensa periit. It was a thing that would not be. {n. p.}

Therefore for most just cause is the master compared to a matrice, seeing that the scholar, as the seed, is the agent, and the master the patient. In spiritual things it is quite contrary for the gospel being effectual by the spirit is the agent converting and changing man into the nature of itself, who is therefore a mere patient, being a leper in the purest spirits of his heart and brain, and therefore hath in him no power or faculty at all to attract any spiritual thing, unless to carnalize it, but his powers are infused from above, as the reasonable soul is, etc. Whereupon it followeth by good consequence that the scholar must attain to learning by his own study, industry, diligence, and exercise, using his master as a help, as a nurse, or matrice as I said before. And again the master is to exhibit himself to the scholar as a well mannered, tilled, and pure soil that will bring forth flourishing and plentiful fruits by the strenght thereof, although the seed be but wane and such as will hardly grow at all in barren, lean, and mossy ground knowing this, that the fat pasture causeth the ewes to twinne, et ex fortibus creari fortes.

This that I have said of the scholar’s self-learning is to be well noted, for oft-times the master, partly of conscience, but not too often, and partly to satisfy the earnest desires of the parents, is very diligent in teaching, which maketh the scholar more negligent in learning as the proverb is: a quick handed mistress maketh a slow-heeled servant, and the wheat that is sown in too fat and rank ground, often proves naught in harvest time. Let not the scholar therefore have an idle, careless, and wandering imagination of the master’s {B4} instructions, but let him so fasten on the same, and that in serious musing thereon he may feel the truth and reason thereof in his own understanding, whereby it comes to be made his own, and is not easily forgotten, nay it is never forgotten if the scholar really, not fantastically attracting the same, doth ripely, not rawly, digest it.

That this may be rightly done, two things in nature are to be observed. First, we understand and remember by semblances and places, similitudines et locos. For let a man mark himself when he heareth or readeth something that he presently understandeth not; and again, when he understandeth but feareth to forget, he beginneth immediately to raise up, and sift the phantasms of the imagination, and to call them out of the memory that lie hid and treasured there, which appearing to his mind, do help his apprehension, giving also directions and informations to the discourse of his reason. Hence, it is that they, which are of good memory and quick imagination, are sharp, witty, and eloquent, and commonly, though erroneously, accompted the best scholars, at leastwise have the general applause, for many be fantastical, but few judicious. And though their understanding be but weak, speaking and doing excellently oft-times that which they ripely understand and not, yet he that is contrarily defective in imagination and memory, but of deep apprehension, receiveth great help and furtherance by them: for without those lights of the fantasy, his apprehensions lie hid and obscure to others, yea and to himself, insomuch that he stands need of one to speak that which he thinks and knows, and to be as it were his interpreter. And to utter this more plainly, {n. p.} these two differing sorts of men habent rationem maris et faeminae. For the judicious and apprehensive is helped by the imaginative man, and therefore delighteth in him, and the imaginative man is perfected by the judgement of the other, and therefore rejoiceth in him.

But to digress no further, for much may be spoken hereof, children are very imaginative and full of fancies. And as they are strong in imagination, so are they weak in understanding and discourse; therefore the master must, in as plain sort as may be, manifest everything to their understandings, always calling on them, and urging them to mark well what he sayth to them, asking them if they understand him. For proof whereof let him cause them to rehearse what he hath told them without regarding his words so much as his meaning, which let them declare after their own manner, as they would speak one to another, for if they study chiefly to rehearse his words, ‘tis a token that their memory is better than their understanding, and therefore they take the easiest way, videlicet to repeat some of the words, but to let the meaning go. This urging of them to attention will cause them to bend and reflect their imaginations upon it, and to seek out some semblance or place to illustrate and to give them light for the ripe conceiving thereof. For children are as unwilling to buckle themselves to understand things, as they that delighting to run about on pleasure, love not to be held to any work, unless it be a little for recreation, and when they are weary of other pleasures, as the most delicious things with continuance are loathsome, to make a pleasure of idle labour. And children desire either not to learn at all, or no more than may serve for a recreation, which is in effect {n. p.} just nothing at all.

Therefore, the master is to inculcate often into them the necessity, profit, use, and end of learning, etc., as also of play, etc., so begetting in them a knowledge and a conscience, self-restraints, and self-motives etc. For they know not to what end they were created and born into the world, to what end they are put to school etc., what the end and use of learning is etc. If the schoolmaster shalt not be mute, but ever filling their heads with these things, he shall find the scholars much more willing to learn and to profit more than with all rigour and severity, wherein there is as much difference as there is between him that liveth healthfully by the strenght of nature, and him that lives dyingly by the strenght of physic. Further mark well what I say of filling their heads always with good fancies. It is a most special point, of most schoolmasters very little regarded. The parrot is taught to speak by often hearing the same words, and by often whistling the same notes the thrush is taught to sing. Even so children’s minds run most on that which they daily hear and see, and consequently their words and actions. Also experience may teach us that, when we are furnished with weapons, our minds are also upon every small occasion offered, filled with bloody phantasies, yea, the very sight thereof causeth such glances, will we, nill we, in our fantasies.

The second thing to be observed in nature that the scholar may incorporate and make that his own, which he learneth, is this: all kinds of creatures have their particular imaginations, and natural sciences, according to their kinds, but the imaginations, or sciences of mankind, are manifold {n. p.} and innumerable. And the reason is because that man seeth in himself all the qualities and properties of every creature whatsoever, and is therefore the true Proteus or Vertumnus that can turn himself into any shape and every shape. And this is the cause why some philosophers thought that the first inventers of arts learned their skill of beasts, fowls, and fishes, as spinning of spiders, physic of the swallow, stork, hart, dog etc., music, and building of birds etc. And this is the cause why that the vulgar people, not knowing well what they say, compare one man to a wolf, another to a fox, another to a dog, another to a serpent etc., whereas these sorts of men are not so comparatively, but really: as also we find the same in Holy Scriptures. Now some men are witty and subtle, that is to say, can reflect their reason upon themselves, and playing the pantomimes, or stage-players, cannot only cover their own shame, as all should do, but make an outward show to the world of the contrary. Others again are fools and cannot hide their brutal man. Others are shameless dogs, and will not etc. But he that is illuminated from above, and withal hath a clear natural light, as Salomon etc., can see in himself and others all manner of folly and brutishness etc., which through the spirit of mortification lie dead or curbed in him etc.

Now to make application. Hereupon it chiefly cometh to pass that children’s imaginations are variable, unconstant, and rowling, to and fro inclining them to any brutishness and folly upon every occasion, and always full of trifling fancies and flying glances. And as there is a measurable {n. p.} fitness in them for anything, so will they also be good for nothing, without God’s grace, parents and master’s care etc., and all little enough.

Therefore that learning may take root and impression in them, the master must with great discretion and policy draw them from this variety and mutability to a certain uniformity and constancy, that that seed of learning etc. that he sows and implants in them, having once taken rooting, may be served of the childe’s nature, viz., understanding, reason, imagination, memory, being drawn from other objects and idle impressions, cutting of vain superfluities which all men naturally are subject unto and preserving them from outward contagion of vain, vitious, and idle persons, by whose means the potential follies and vanities of the child are produced into act, and are very hardly curbed again. For such persons are plantatores and rigatores also, whose poisons and infections do surely take effect, seeing that we are naturally declive to vice and folly, but acclive to vertue and true wisdom, being like round heavy stones that of themselves run down the hill, but with much ado are rowled up, as the stone of Sisyphus: and as the earth which is prone to weeds of its own accord but with much toil and labour hardly bringeth forth good fruit, especially if weeds have once gotten upper hand.

The master therefore that would have the child prosperously and happily proceed in learning and good manners must devise, frame, and fill the scholar’s head with witty and good imaginations according to his age and disposition, I mean with similitudes, comparisons, examples etc., recreating them very often with delightful fables {n. p.} and stories profitable both to learning and manners. For children are fantastical, and as they love to hear such things, so shall they hear them in filthy matter and manner, at one hand or other, therefore the master considering children’s dispositions must use revokements and preventions above all things most carefully. Revokements that when the child heareth or seeth such naughtiness, his master’s words and premonitions may come into his mind to retract him. Prevention: by furnishing him and fraughting him with these antidotes, whereby he is better armed and strengthned against outward assaults, then with all corrections and threatenings. For if nature, as we see, be strong of herself, she will with small help of physic expel noisome corruptions and speedily recover herself. And as the ground that is well manred, tilled, and sown thick with corn bringeth forth no weeds, for the corn doth overgrow them, but being thin sown it will gather weeds: even so our nature is such like, as it will bring forth the one or the other, but weeds it will bring forth vice and foolishness, most plentifully if this order aforesaid be not taken.

But I now digress into the reformation of manners which requires a larger discourse than a by-digression. Therefore, I will retire and proceed forward from whence I began to digress whatsoever the master teacheth, let the scholar by perfect understanding thereof make it his own, though he remember not all that he learns, and if it be too hard for him, why should he be taught that whereof he is not at all, or not yet capable? What a folly is it, and a destruction of nature? And what matrice can bring forth, wherein there is no {n. p.} seed, I mean no principles of that art in the scholar, which the master teacheth?

Furthermore, let the master mark well without partiality whether the scholar be defective in understanding and capacity, or he himself in teaching. I myself have known some children orderly and methodically taught much what according to this theoric with delightful and marvelous success, yea almost incredible, which afterward by contrary order have been besotted and have had as good will to their book as a bear to the stake. Again I have known them that have been long confusedly and disorderly taught, as they are in most common schools, that could never be brought from foolish gabling to any understanding at all, till they were brought back to the beginning of the accidence, and of purpose caused to forget whatsoever they had learned before. For having once gotten an habit of parroting they will not bend their reason and imagination, neither can they, to learn and understand distinctly, sensibly and methodically.

It behoveth the master therefore not only to teach truly, as all do not, but also to be the master of that which he teacheth, that is, throughly to understand it, and to be able to make the scholar apprehend it, not always after one way and form, as it were but sundry ways, and especially as he shall see this or that particular scholar of capacity and disposition to apprehend it. For as all have not the selfsame wit numero (as the logitians say) so they do not alike apprehend and understand the same thing, though their wits be all good, if the thing have any difficulty or ambiguity in it, that being ambiguous to one which is not so {n. p.} to another. For let a man tell but an ordinary tale, plain enough even to common wits, yet everyone understands it not alike, therefore in telling it again, one tells it one way and another way, differing not only in words, but also in matter, some telling it distinctly and sensibly, others confusedly and uncertainly, conjecturing rather than knowing what they heard. Furthermore, let sundry men look all upon one thing at once the object of the eye, namely the colour is the one and the same in every eye, but the thing itself offers sundry conceits and imaginations to everyone of them, therefore if any two of them agree in the same conceit, they fall a laughing or smiling which proceeds from an approoving of the consent.

This is a thing of special note in teaching: and it is indeed painful if so be that a man have many scholars, thus to apply himself to every particular which were indeed an excellent course. For when the master speaks to all, he is most commonly heard of all, that is to say of none in particular: unless it be of some, that is as willing to learn as he to teach. And this is the preacher’s case. For all in the church hear him, but few hear him, viz. with special attention to make particular application: the rest supposing that he speaks not of or to him, or him etc., but all. And so this all is a certaine monogrammus, mathematical, as I may say, or imaginary and universal man, and so no one of them is bettered by the preacher, and therefore neither the all. These have the spirit of slumber.

Again if the master speak to one of a form, the rest hear by halves with idle ears and wandering minds, relying upon him that is spoken to, {n. p.} that they may learn of him by rote or prompting, which he received understandingly from the master. In which case one is made, as it were the heir, the rest as younger brethren: and so it happens to them as to younger brothers.

Few masters will be at such pains as this, whereof I speak, unless a good conscience rather move them thereunto, then either the reward or kind consideration and thanks of the parents, which for the most part are won with the goose and lost with the feather; or being rustical stand dodging, because they prize learning at no higher rate than common market-stuff. And who almost regards it, but as it is a means to bring bodily profit or pleasures, as the Epicure’s held and practiced? This is none of the least causes why that schoolmasters in some gentlemen’s houses are respected no more than ordinary serving-men and less. Yea they will say nowadays that they respect and reverence learning, but as for the learned he may go beg with Homer. Judge from what spirit this proceedeth. Surely as it is an easy matter in these politic and heartless days one to beguile another: so is it as easy for Satan to deceive all, as ever it was, seeing that men can so cunningly and wittily (themselves not perceiving their own hearts and spirits) carnalize and epicurize both all human learning and divinity. Et, ut ulmi, sic et nunc spiritus volatiles ubique suos fatuos exagitant.

Thus much, courteous reader, of the true theory and grounds of teaching. Wherein many questions may be demanded by the unskillful, for to satisfy every man in every thing requireth a large treatise, and many objections may be made {n. p.} by the captious. As for the former that are desirous of help in this faculty, but receive not much from these general and remote grounds, I intend to write a treatise at large of the practice of teaching from the very first entrance till the perfecting of a scholar for the university, my reasons of every particular being drawn from this theory whereon I ground my practice.

As for the captious, I answer to them that sophistical and fantastical spirits, and such as are of contradictious dispositions, are no competent judges in those things that are grounded on nature, experience and use, neither are they much to be disputed withal, because their wisdom is only in words, and therefore without good judgement.

Read therefore, I pray thee, consider, practice, and then judge, and I hope that thou and I shall agree in one. If anything that I have done mislike thee, condemn not the work, but amend the fault or say nothing: and when thou thinkest that thou hast mended it, beware that thou be not disliked also of others. Such is the fortune of every work, when it is once exposed to the public censure. Tot sensus, quot capita. But if everyone would or could follow nature their guide, and not bare reading and mere imagination, we should all agree in one, for truth is but one: but imaginations and probabilities are infinite, and too much discoursing with the fantasy is the mother of error, which while that some enforce and constrain, they run into a labyrinth, and may sooner break their wits, then beat out the truth where it is not.

A Deo et natura, non ex phantasia, aut more.

Farewell. {C}

{n. p.}

Grammar is the art to speak well. It hath two parts: etymology and syntaxis.

Etymology is the former part of grammar, that declareth the interpretation or properties of words severally.

A word is a sign or note whereby we declare the meaning of the mind in naming or calling something.

In a word are to be considered the matter and signification, which is the form.

The matter of a word is divided into letters and syllables.

A letter is the first and simplest matter of a word.

The affections of a letter are prosody and orthography.

Prosody is the true pronunciation thereof, which is perceived by the power.

Orthography is the right writing thereof, which is perceived by the form.

Of a Vowel

A letter is a vowel or a consonant.

A vowel is a letter which may make a syllable or word of itself, and without which no syllable can be made: therefore, it is called a vowel.

It is pronounced either with the mouth open, {C2} as a, e, i, or with the mouth shut, as o, u, and the Greek vowel y. They are the five degrees from the widest opening to the narrowest shutting of the mouth in speaking.

The affection proper to a vowel alone is aspiration or breathing.

It is breathed sharpely or softly.

The sharpely breathed vowel is signed with this character or note before it: h. Therefore, seeing it is set before no consonants we rightly pronounce hi-ulcus, Hi-accus, Hi-eronymus, Hi-erusalem, etc.

In Latin words it is sometimes set after c, as charus, pulcher, etc.

In Greek words after four consonants, as Rhodus, Thorus, Chorus, Phillis.

The word that is softly breathed wanteth this note, as amo, onus.

Of a Consonant

A consonant is a letter which maketh a sound only with a vowel.

It is single or double.

The single consonant is a semivowel, or a mute.

A semivowel is a consonant that hath the half sound of a vowel.

It is liquid or firm.

The liquid semivowel is pronounced with the lips more open, and as it were melteth in sounding, as l, m, n, r, s.

The firm semivowel is pronounced with the lips more drawn together, and hath an unchangeable sound, as j, jod; v, vau; f.

A mute is a consonant which alone doth only {n. p.} mutter, as it were a certain endeavour to pronounce. It is open or shut.

The open mute murmureth with the lips open, and that partly in the teeth, as t, d, partly in the palate, as c, q, g. Note that k hath the same sound with c, and is utterly unusuall in Latin words.

The shut mute muttereth in the inner cheeks, the lips being shut, as p, b.

The double consonant is made of two consonants, as x, z. X is made of cs, or gs, as in crux and frux, which may be perceived by the genitive cases crucis and frugis.

Z is made of sd, or ss, in the middle of a word. Note that in what word soever y or z is found, the same is derived from the Greeks.

I between two vowels is a double consonant, as maja, Pompejus.

Of Quantity

Moreover, the common affection of their form or figure is the quantity thereof. In respect wherof, they are called capital or great letters, and little or small letters. They are in number 25.

The small letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x, y, z, and jod, vau.

The great letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z.

Note.

Great letters are used first in the beginning of verses, periods, and proper names.

Secondly, being set alone, they signify a forename, which we call our Christian name, and a surname, some title of office, or dignity, something of special note, and also numbers. {C3}

Names

Numbers

{n. p.}

Thus far of the true pronunciation and right writing of a letter.

Of a Syllable

A syllable is a full and perfect sound in a word.

It is made of one letter or more.

A syllable of one letter is every vowell, a, e, i, o, u, and y, monophthongs.

A syllable of more letters is made either of two vowels or of a vowel and consonant mixt together.

The syllable made of two vowels is called a diphthong, i.e. the sound of two vowels in one syllable.

There be five diphthongs: ae, au, œ, ei, eu, as aetas, audio, cœlum, hei, euge.

The syllable mixt of a vowel and consonant may contain diverse letters: as, ars, mars, stans, scrobs, stirps.

Of Composition

The affections of a syllable are composition, or spelling, and pronounciation.

Composition is whereby they are rightly spelled or set together. First, those consonants must be joined together in the middle of a simple word, which ought to be joined in the beginning of a word.

Secondly, if in a simple word of two syllables {C4} the former end in a consonant, the latter shall begin with a consonant, as Gal-lus, etc.

Thirdly, if the latter shall begin with a vowel, the former shall end in a vowel, as deus, pius.

Fourthly, if a consonant be in the middle, it shall be referred to the syllable following, as pa-ter.

S is not written after x, because it is included in x, as excribo, ecscribo.

Of Euphony

Pronounciation is whereby syllables are rightly pronounced.

It stands in euphony and measure.

Euphony is whereby certain prepositions in compound words are smoothly and distinctly pronounced and written accordingly.

And for distinct pronounciation sake, consonants are sometimes intermixed, as redamo, redeo, ambigo, ambio; not reamo, reeo, etc.

Contrariwise the preposition con, coming before a vowel looseth n, as coerceo, coinquino, cooperio.

Of Time or Quantity.

Measure is whereby syllables in their pronounciation are measured. It is time, or tone.

Time is the holding out of a syllable in the pronounciation thereof.

In regard of time, a syllable is short or long.

A short syllable consisteth of one time, and if need be, it is noted over the vowel, thus Dĕus, mĕus. {n. p.}

A short syllable is:

I. One vowel before another in the same word, as dĕus, pĭus.

II. A, e, y, in the end of a word, as musă, retĕ, moly̆.

III. Every vowel before these letters, r, l, t, d, m, b, in the end of a word.

IIII. I and u before s in the end of a word, as tristĭs, bonŭs.

A long syllable consisteth of two times, and is thus marked -, mūsa.

A syllable is long by nature or by position.

The syllable long by nature is:

I. Every diphthong, as aūdio.

II. I and u in the end of a word, as veni, manu.

III. Every vowel before n and c in the end of a word, as titan, splen, delphin, hac, illac, etc.

IIII. A. e, o before s in the end of a word, as amas, doces, nepos.

A syllable is long by position.

I. When a vowel cometh before two consonants in the same word.

II. When it cometh before a double consonant, as pax, gaza, Maia.

III. When a vowel cometh before two consonants in diverse words, as maior sum, quām cui possit fortûna nocere.

IIII. A short vowel before a mute, and a liquid following is in verse common, as patris, volucris, cerebrum, Hibla. But if the vowel be long, it remaineth so, as arātrum, simulāchrum.

V. O in the end of a word is common, as homo, amo. But in words of one syllable, it is long, as ô, stô, flô.

The Affections of Quantity {n. p.}

The affections of quantity are systole and diastole.

Systole is when a long syllable is made short in meter, as Virgil, conūbio iungam stabili, etc.

Diastole is when a short syllable is made long, as Virgil, excercet Dĭana choros, etc.

The quantity of syllables is full expressed in these rules following.

De primis et mediis syllabis.

Vocalis praeiens aliam, brevis esto latinis.

Tardant vocales alias, alias ^a breviantque.

Produc ^b dipthongum, quoque cum positura.

Prae muta, et liquida breve si vocale sit anceps.

Ei longabis quintae, quando immediate.

I praeit, at brevis (ut fidei) si consona praesit.

Fio cum ductis tarda ^c r, e, m comitentur.

Eheu produces, communis redditur o hae.

Arbitrio brevis aut longus genetivus in ius:

Alterius brevis est, sed produc semper alius.

Tardat vocales ^d i, consona se praeeuntes.

Primae mensuram ^e vox derivata sequatur.

Simplicis et legem verbi ^f composta sequuntur.

Semper corripies, ab, ad, in, re, per, ob super et sub

A tarda ^g c, de, di, prae, se, pro, Latiumque.

Est pro breve in fugio, cello, fanoque, neposque.

Et fateor, fundus, pago, sectoque profari.

Iunge ^h propheta, propino, protervus, sic proficiscor

Incurro, fundo, pello, pulso, variatur. {n. p.}

Praeteritum produc dissyllabon, atque supinum.

Tolle bibit, scidit, atque fudit, tulit, ortaque do, sto.

Sic datum, itumque, statumque, satumque, ratumque, quitumque.

Adde situmque, citumque, litumque, rutumque supina

Praeterito gemino brevis est prima, atque secunda.

Fuste cecidit eos dices tamen, atque pependit.

^k I, vel o compositi partem finire priorem

Si videas brevia, velut armiger, orthographosque.

Nomen in obliquis quantum sit, flectio monstrat.

His adiectivis penultima sit tibi longa,

Icus, et alis, iungas aris, et orus, et osus,

Atus, et itus, et utus, et ivus, et anus, et enus,

Queis addas ^l inus, nisi signat ^m materiale.

A verbi produc crescentis, sed dare deme.

ⁿ E produc, nisi prae, rim, ram, ro, queis bĕris adde.

Est i brevis nisi sit praesens ^o quartae sed et ĭvi.

Sed tibi pluralis dat ^p venimus, ivimus atque.

^q Sum, volo, dant imus subiuncto, rimus, et anceps.

^r O semper produc ^s sumus, et volumus breviato.

De ultimis syllabis.

Tarda a, non quiă, pută, ită. ^a Rectus, quartus, ă, quintus.

In gintam numerus longus, quandoque fit anceps.

B breve. C tarda. Non lăc, nec, donec. At hic, fac.

Neutrum hoc non ^b sexti: tibi sint communia cuncta.

De breve, t, e. Non ^c me, te, se. Non ^d u: caetera rapta.

Verborum iuga, si iubeant, procuce ^e secunda.

Nominibus (docte ut) produc adverbia ducta.

Haec tria, ritĕ tamen, benè, cum male ^f corripiantur. {n. p.}

^g Quintsextum produc, hodieque, dieque, fideque,

I tarda, (quasi nec nisi) ibi mihi, ubi, tibi, et anceps.

Et ^h vocat et dat i, graeca, breve os sibi dans genetivo.

Corripias l, sol. Non sal, nil, longa et ⁱ Hebraea.

^k Est brevis on, brevis in, brevis an, si est rectus ă, non ans

Tarda n. Non forsan, tamen, attamen, an, subin, in, ^l men.

Quae per inis crescunt, genetivo corripiuntur.

O dubia: obliquis tarda: modo, quo modo nunquam.

^m Vix cito, ego, ambo, duo. Crebro, sero, sedulo, ⁿ neutra

R breve. Non far, nar, ver, fur, cur, ^o parque, crater, lar.

Graia in up ^p longa: pater, et ^q mater breviato.

Graecum dos gignens as (Pallas, Pallados) esto.

Correptum. ^r Accusans crescens pluralis in asque.

Omnia in as sunto, si sint, producta, latina.

Es tarda. Brevis est graviter crescens genetivo.

Deme aries, abies, pariesque, Ceres, ^s pes, orta et,

Es cum compositis, prodĕs, potĕs, adde penĕsque.

^t Graecorum neutra, ^u et pluralia in es breviato.

Is breve. Pluralis casus non corripe ^x curvos.

Is quoque longabis, si gignens crescit acute.

^y Eis producatur dipthongus graeca, latina.

Is, quis, ^z bis breve: caetera sed monosyllaba produc.

Tarda ^a verba is, quae faciunt pluralia in itis.

Os tarda, haud impos, ^b compos, graecum et per o parvum

us breve: non monosyllaba, nec si crescat ^c acute.

Flectio contracta us dat, non ^d rectus, nec ^e vocativus.

Graecula in ous finita sient producta, Melampus.

V semper tarda. Tibi lectio caetera monstret. {n. p.}

Scholia.

a Graeci. b Nisi sequente vocali. c Ut fierem, fieri. d Ut maior, peior. e At vōcis, lēgis, regis, sedes, iumentum, fomes, iucundus, iunior, mobilis, hūmanus, vomer, pedor, a brevibus fiunt longae. Contra, dŭcis, dīcax, fides, ărena, ărista, pŏsui, gĕnui, frăgor, frăgilis, nŏto, notas, disertus, sŏpor, a longis fiunt breves. f At innŭba, pronŭba, a nūbo. Deiĕro, peiĕro, a iūro. g Excipe dĭrimo, dĭsertus. h Nisi sequente vocali, ut, unda dehiscens, sudibusque praeustis. i Graeca per o parvum. k Quotidie, et quotidianus variant. Sed ibīdem, tibīcen, fidīcen, ubique, homicida, geometra, meridies, Theophilus, orthodoxus. Scilicet, siquidem, quantilibet, quantivis, l Praeter diutinus, crastinus, pristinus, perendinus, hornotinus, serotinus. m Cedrĭnus, fagĭnus, chrystallĭnus, myrrhĭnus, etc. n Excipitur tertia coniugatio, nisi in reris, et rere imperfecto passivo optativo. o Ut audīs, audītius, audītis. p Penultima pluralis semper corripitur in omnibus. q Ut sīmus, velīmus. r O incremento verborum producitur, s Vero corripitur. Penultima nominum in al, do, go, ela, ile, imen, trīmus producuntur, sed intĭmus corripiuntur. Excipe anĭmal, putĕal. Sic nomina in ītius corripiuntur. Item verba in ŭrio, praeterprūrio, scatūrio. Antepenultimam nominum in ībilis longatur, ut audibilis.

a Nominativus, accusativus, vocativus in a: praeter vocativus graecorum. b Nam hoc ablativi est longa. c Nec ulla monosyllaba praeter quĕ, nĕ, vĕ enclyticas. d Graeca in e, ut Anchisē, Phaebē, Tempē. e Ut docē, movē, cavē. f Sic magĕ. g Ablativus secundae imparissillabis. h Ut Pallas, Palladŏs, Palladĭ. Sic Phyllidĭ, etc. Vocativus Amaryllĭ, Alexĭ, Daphnĭ, etc. i Ut Michael, Daniel, etc. k Ut Ilion (per o parvum) Pylion, Alexin, Ity̆n, Aegină, Aeginăn, {n. p.} Aenaeas, Aenaean, etc. l Et omnia, quae per apocopen castrantur. m Item et homo, vix leguntur producta. n Sic mutuo sunt communia. o Sic composita compar, impar. etc. p Ut aer, aether, soter, character. q Apud latinos. r Ut Heroăs, Phyllidăs, etc. s Ut compes, praepes. t Ut Hippomanes. u Ut Naidĕs, Cyclopĕs, etc. x Dativum et ablativum y Simoeis, omneis, parteis, etc. z Bis tamen apud Ovid.

a Audis, velis, dederis. b Sicos ossis. c Ut tellus, salus, etc. d E singularis numeri.

Of Tone

Tone is the tuning or accenting of a syllable.

It is simple or mixt.

The simple is either sharp or flat, called acute and grave.

The sharp is accented with a rising voice, and it is thus noted “ ́”.

The flat is accented with a falling voice, and is thus marked “ ̀”.

The mixt is accented with both voices. It is called of the grammarians “the circumflex”, but of the musicians “a fall”. It is thus marked “ˆ”.

Of the Sharp Tone

The sharp tone accenteth words of one syllable whether they be short, as mél, fél, or long by position, as párs, páx.

Secondly, in words of two syllables, the former not being long by nature, is sharpened, as cítus, látus, sólers, sátur.

Thirdly, in words of many syllables the last but one, if it be long, is sharpened, as libértas penátes, otherwise the last but two: as dóminus, póntifex, áffatim, muliéris, cáthédra, mediocris. {n. p.}

Except compounds of fácio, as benefácis, malefácis, calefácit, frigefácit. And compounds of fís, and fít are sharpened in the last, as benefít, satifít.

Note that doubtful syllables in verse do follow the law of the verse, as pictaeque volúcres.

Of the Flat Tone

The flat accent is never expressed but in the last syllable to distinguish words, as tristè, cùm. It is called the syllabical accent, because it is understood in every syllable that is not sharpened or circumflect, and they are pronounced with the same tenor of the voice, as, Gratiànopolitanôrum.

Of the Circumflex

Words of one syllable being long by nature are circumflect, as spês, flôs, rûs, mûs.

Secondly, in words of two or of many syllables the last but one is circumflect if it be long by nature, and the latter short, as Lûna, mûsa, mâter, Rôma, amavêre, scripsêre. Otherwise, it is sharpened, as népos, amavérunt, scripsérunt, for one long syllable before another is never circumflect.

Note

No syllable is circumflect, saving the last but one.

None but some one of the three last syllables in a word is accented.

Of the Affection of Tone

The affection of tone is the changing and removing of it from the proper syllable to another, and that by seven means: {n. p.}

I. By distinction: the last syllables of explanatives are accented with the sharp tone, thereby to distinguish them from significatives, as uná, eó, quó, continuó, nequá, siquá, feré, plané, putá, poné, circúm, aliás, ergó, a conjunction, but ergô for cause is circumflect, as Virgil, illius ergô venimus, and many others, which in the end of a sentence are sharpened, but in the consequence or context of a speech are flat.

II. By composition: the accent is changed that the composition may be discerned thereby, as déinde próinde, alíquando, húcusque, àlonge, déinceps, quàpropter, ádmodum, intereáloci, háctenus, etc., otherwise the accent is not changed, as dénique, utique, itaque, vúdique, híccine, etc., but ubîque and ubîvis are excepted.

III. By transposition: prepositions being set after their casual words are flat, as transtra pèr, te penès.

IIII. By attraction: the conjunctions que, ne, ve, dum, sis, nam, and the preposition cum, draw the accent to the syllable next before them, and sharpen it, as luminàque, hominésve, adèsdum, mécum.

V. By interrogation: the accent is removed to the last syllable, as Egoné? Quis furor ô civés?

VI. By aphaeresis: the accent is changed, for such words retain the accent of the whole word, as Vergíli Valéri, ingèni, Mercúri, for Vergílii, etc., or circumflect the last syllable being contracted, as Arpinâs, Ravennâs, nostrâs, vestrâs, cuiâs, of Arpinâtis etc., their proper nominatives. Donec, of donecum hûc, ilûc, istûc, etc., for hucce, illucce, etc. And compounds of dîc, duc, and fac, as benedîc, redûc, calefâc.

VII. By idiom: when words of other tongues do {n. p.} retain their own accents being used in the Latin tongue, as Simóeis, Períphas, georgicà, bucolicà, comaedía, tragedía, symphonía, which being made Latin words do receive the Latin accent, as Símois, périphas, geórgica, bucólica, tragédia, symphónia, etc. And it is the best in borrowed words to use the Latin accent.

The matter of a word is interpreted: signification followeth.

Of a Noun Substantive

A word in regard of signification is significative or explanative.

The significative word serveth principally to signify.

It is either a noun or a verb.

The noun is real or personal.

A noun is the name of a thing that may be seen, felt, heard, or understood, as manus, “a hand”; domus, “a house”; bonitas, “goodness”.

Of nouns, some be substantives, some be adjectives.

A noun substantive is that which may stand alone in reason or signification, without another word joined to it. And it is so called because it standeth by itself and sustaineth other words which cannot stand without it, as liber, “a book”; Liber magnus, “a great book”; liber legitur, “a book is read”.

Of substantives, some are absolute, some are participles.

The absolute substantive is proper, or common. {D}

A substantive proper is a name proper to the thing which it signifieth, as Petrus, Iohannes, Rhadulphus, Egidius.

The substantive common, which is also called appellative, is a name common to many things, as homo, lapis, iustitia, pietas.

Of the Accidents of a Noun Substantive

Six accidents or properties befall a substantive, viz., notation, number, case, declension, gender, comparison.

In regard of these properties, a noun is homoclite, or heteroclite.

Homoclite is when they do evenly or regularly agree to their noun.

Of Kind

Notation is kind, or figure.

Kind showeth the original or nature of a word.

It is primitive or derivative.

Primitive hath the original or beginning of itself, as picus, grex, turba, sibilus, tintinnabulum, clangor, etc.

Derivative is made of the primitive. It is nominal, or verbal.

The nominal derivative is made of a noun and it is patronymical or diminutive.

Of the Patronymic

The patronymic is derived from the father, grandfather, or some other person of the family or stock, as:

Of Diminution

A diminutive is that which signifieth the deminishing or lessening of the signification of the primitive. It is used for flattery, mockage, or pity usually.

Of the verbal

Note

Those supinals of the first conjugation that end in itus or in ctus, do form their nouns in atio, as vetitus, vetatio, praestatio, cubatio, domatio, sonatio, crepatio, iuvatio, tonatio, fricatio, etc., but sectio is more in use than secatio. But domitor, adiutor, sector.

Of Figure

Figure showeth whether a substantive be simple or compound. Simple, as rector. Compound, as corrector, fideiussio, to which may be added the decompound, as inconstantia, irreverentia. {D3}

Of Number

Number is singular or plural.

The singular signifieth one thing alone, as lapis, “a stone”.

The plural signifieth more than one, as lapides, “stones”.

Of Case

Case is whereby a noun falleth into diverse constructions.

It is absolute or oblique.

The absolute is whereby a thing is absolutely named without dependence on other words, therefore ’tis called the nominative, or right case.

The oblique is whereby a thing is obliquely named, according to his dependence on other words, which is by five ways, so that there are five oblique cases: the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative.

The Cases Are Thus Known

The nominative case cometh immediately before the verb, and answereth to the question “who”, or “what”, as magister docet.

The genitive is governed and signifieth of “whom” or “what” a thing is, as doctrina magistri. “Of” is his sign.

The dative case is governed and signifieth to “whom” or to “what” a thing is, as do librum magistro. “To” is his sign.

The accusative followeth the verb, whose action immediately passeth into it and it signifieth “whom” or “what”, as amo magistrum.

The vocative case is governed and is known by calling or speaking to, as ô magister. {n. p.}

The ablative case is governed and signifieth from “whom”, or “what” a thing is. It is known either by prepositions serving to it, as de magistro, coram magistro; or by these signs “in”, “with”, “through”, “for”, “from”, and also “by” or “than” after the comparative degree.

Of Declension

Declensoin is the varying of a noun according to case.

It is simple or contract.

The simple is parisyllabic or imparisyllabic.

The parisyllabic declension is whose genitive singular for the most part, and dative plural, is always of even syllables with the nominative singular, and it is double.

The first declension parisyllabic is when the nominative, vocative, and ablative singular end in a, the genitive and dative in ae diphthong, the accusative in am; the nominative and vocative plural in ae diphthong, the genitive in arum, the dative and ablative in is, the accusative in as, as in example:

Note

Note that filia and nata do end in is, or in abus in the dative and ablative plural, but dea, mula, {D4} equa, liberta, anima, ambae, duae, do end in abus only.

By hellenism, the genitive singular imitateth the Greeks, as paterfamilias, materfamilias, filiusfamilias, usuall. Dux ipse vias, Ennius; filius Latonas, Livius Andronicus; filii terras, Naevius; nec auras, nec sonitus memor, Virgil. Unusual.

By archaism were used aulai, pictai, bellai, for aulae, pictae, belli, etc.

The genitive plural is usually contracted by “syncope”, as Graiugenum, Aenaeadum, for Graiugenarum, Aenaeadarum.

The second declension parisyllabic is when the nominative and vocative singular end in er, ir, us, um, the genitive in i, the dative and ablative in o, the accusative in um. The nominative, and vocative plural in i, the genitive in orum, the dative and ablative in is, the accusative in os, as in example:

Note

When the nominative endeth in us, the vocative endeth in e, as dominus, domine. Except deus, o deus, and filius, fili, meus, mi, genius, geni. Also agnus, lucus, vulgus, populus, chorus, fluvius, end in e, or us, as agne and agnus, etc.

Also all nouns of what declension soever being {n. p.} neuters have the nominative, accusative, and vocative like in both numbers, and in the plural they end all in a, as in example:

Except ambo and duo, which make the neuter gender in o, and are thus declined:

The genitive plural is often contracted by syncope, as deum for deorum; virum, for virorum.

Some nouns of this declension do increase vir with his compounds: duumvir, triumvir, decemvir, centumvir, levir; so socer, gener, adulter, puer, presbyter, iber, and iberus. And adjectives asper, exter, liber, miser, tener, dexter, gibber, prosper, and prosperus. Caeterus and puerus have been in use. To these add the compounds of gero and fero, as armiger, signifer, etc.

The declension imparisyllabic is whose genitive singular for the most part, and dative plural is always of uneven syllables, with the nominative singular, and it is double. {n. p.}

The first declension imparisyllabic is when the nominative and vocative singular do end in c, d, e, o, l, n, r, s, t, x, the genitive in is, the dative in i, the accusative in em and sometimes in im, the ablative in e, or in i, or in both; the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural in es, the genitive in um, and sometime in ium, the dative and ablative in bus, as in example:

Of the Genitive Case Singular

I. Certain Greek nouns are derived hither from the first declension parisyllabic, as Aeschines, Aeschinis; Aristides, Aristidis.

II. This genitive is sometimes borrowed of the second parisyllabic, as immitis Achilli for Achillis; duri miles Ulissi, for Ulissis.

Of the Accusative Case

I. Some accusatives end only in im, as vim, ravim, tussim, sitim, maguderim, amussim, cucumim, elim. Names of rivers, as Tybrim, Ararim. And many Greek words as Syrtis, Mysis, Thais, Tygris, Tyberis, Daphnis, Paris, change im into in, as Syrtin, Mysin ,etc.

II. Some end both in im and em, as buris, pelvis, clavis, securis, puppis, torquis, turris, restis, feberis, {n. p.} navis, bipenis, aqualis.

Of the Ablative Case

I. Nouns of the masculine gender derived of adjectives do end in i, as annalis, affinis, Aprilis, Sextilis, Quintilis, sodalis, rivalis, familiaris. But rudis, the “feminine” rude.

II. Neuters in al, ar, e, most commonly end in i, as vectigal, calcar, mare. Reti of rete. But par with his compounds endeth in e, or i. And these end only in e, far, hepar, jubar, nectar, gausape, praesepe, and proper names Soraste, Praeneste, Reate.

III. The names of months in er, end in i only, as September, Septembri. But the simple, imber, endeth in e, and i.

IIII. When the accusative endeth in im, or in, the ablative endeth in i, as sitim, siti; Mysin, Mysi; Tigrin, Tigri. But Ararim, Arare.

Adjectives in is or in er that make their neuter in e, do end in i, as fortis, mollis, dulcis, acer, acri. But “poets” sometimes use e for i. Other adjectives end in e and i, namely of three genders under one termination, as amans, clemens, faelix, vetus, capax, etc., except pauper, uber, hospes, sospes.

V. When the accusative endeth in im and em, the ablative endeth in e and i, as puppis, puppe, and puppi.

VI. All verbals in trix end in e and i. So certain substantives ignis, amnis, anguis, suppellex, unguis, vectis, avis, ovis, classis, fustis, finis, and sometimes civis.

VII. Likewise all comparatives as doctior, doctius, doctiore or doctiori. To which add nostras, vestras, {n. p.} cuias, and gentiles Arpinas, Fulginas etc., which are contracts of nostratis, vestratis, etc, now not used.

VIII. Proper names like to adjectives end in e, as Lateranensis, Iuvenalis, Martialis, Faelix, Clemens, etc.

Of the Nominative Plural

I. In the nominative plural we say Sardis, Trallis, not Sardes, Tralles.

II. Neuters ending in e in the ablative case do form the nominative plural in a, as corpore, corpora.

III. When the ablative singular endeth in i only, or in e and i, the nominative plural in the neuter endeth in ia, as concordi, faelici, molli, dulci; concordia, faelicia, etc., except ubera and all comparatives, as doctiora, molliora, etc., but plura and pluria; aplustra and aplustria.

Of the Genitive

I. When the ablative endeth in i only, or in e and i, the genitive plural endeth in ium, as puppi, tristi, tristium. Except comparatives and these following, as supplicum, complicum, artificum, strigilum, vigilum, veterum, memorum, pugilum, inopum; but plus, plurium.

II. When the ablative singular endeth in e, regularly the genitive plural is evermore contracted, as honore, honorum; milite, militum; doctiorum. And diverse others, especially verbals in ans or ens, as sapientum, serpentum, prudentum, parentum, etc.

III. When the nominative singular endeth in two consonants, the genitive plural endeth in ium, {n. p.} as pars, urbs, falx, glans, trabs, merx, partium, urbium, etc., except hiemum, principum, participum, municipum, forcipum, inopum, caelibum, clientum; as, assium; mas, marium; vas, vadium; nox, noctium; nix, nivium; os, ossium; mus, murium; faux, faucium; caro, carnium; cor, cordium; alituum of ales; bos, bonum; in the dative bobus or bubus.

IIII. When the genitive singular is of even syllables with the nominative, the genitive plural endeth in ium, as collis, mensis, accris, collium, etc. To these are added litium, ditium, vitium, salium, manium, penatium. But canum, panum, vatum, iuvenum, opum, apum, are excepted.

V. The names of feasts being only plurals do make their genitive most commonly in orum, which is borrowed from the second parisyllabic, as Agonalia, Vinalia, Vinaliorum; sometimes in ium, as Floralia, Feralia, Feralium; sometimes in both, as Parentalia, Saturnalia, Saturnaliorum, or Saturnalium.

Of the Accusative

When the genitive plural endeth in ium, the accusative endeth in es or eis the diphthong as partium, partes, or parteis, omnium, omnes, or omneis.

Rules Whereby to Decline All Words of this Declension, and to Know the Gender

The genitive case, increasing or not increasing, and consequently all cases, are known by the termination of the nominative.

There be seventy terminations of the nominative, as hereafter followeth. {n. p.}

Seventy Terminations

A of Two Letters

A of Three Letters

E

No words ending in e do increase, and they are all neuters.

E of Two Letters

E of Three Letters

I

No Latin words in the nominative singular end in i.

I of Two Letters.