An Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech, and the Construction of the Same, Compiled and Set Forth by the Commandment of Our Most Gracious Sovereign Lord The King; Concise treatise of all grammar, which our most cultured and distinguished King ordered to be circulated in that name, so that children throughout England would read nothing else but this one

ToC

Document Type	Translation
Code	Lily
Printer	Thomas Berthelet
Type	print
Year	1542
Place	London

An Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech, and the Construction of the Same, Compiled and Set Forth by the Commandment of Our Most Gracious Sovereign Lord The King.

Anno MDXLII. {n. p.}

Henry the VIII by the grace of God King of England, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, and of the Church of England, and also of Ireland, in earth the supreme Head, to all schoolmasters and teachers of grammar within this his realm, greeting. Among the manifold business and most weighty affairs appertaining to our regal authority and office, we forget not the tender babes and the youth of our realm, whose good education and godly bringing up is a great furniture to the same and cause of much goodness. And to the intent that hereafter they may the more readily and easily attain the rudimentes of the Latin tongue without the great hindrance, which heretofore hath been through the diversity of grammars and teachings, we will and command, and straightly charge all you schoolmasters and teachers of grammar within this our realm, and other our dominions, as ye intend to avoid our displeasure and have our favour to teach and learn your scholars this English introduction here ensuing, and the Latin grammar annexed to the same and none other, which we have caused for your ease and your scholars speedy preferment briefly and plainly to be compiled and set forth. Fail not to apply your scholars in learning and godly education. {n. p.}

To the Reader.

Albeit this realm of England hath just cause to think itself most bounden to the goodness of God, for manifold and sundry benefits received of his inestimable bountifulness, yet if we will weigh the just value of things in an equal balance, as a certain wise philosopher did, which affirmed that realm to be most happy, where as either a wise and a learned man had the rule, or the ruler applied himself to wisdom and learning, we may perceive us Englishmen in nothing so fortunate as in that we have a King and governor, both of excellent wisdom, learning and virtue, and also of great study and diligence to increase the same, whose kingly qualities, when they shall hereafter by such godly monuments, as His Majesty shall leave behind him, appear so plainly to his posterity as we now presently see things, many of them already done, some indoing, and more shall see, which His Majesty by the grace of God, intendeth hereafter to do: out of question all thathave gone before him, may well appear but shadows. And to leave the large fields of his princely acts, wherein the wisest and best learned might walk till wit and eloquence were both weary, what constant judgement and what profound knowledge hath His Majesty showed and declared to all the world, in this variety of judgementes and learnings? And what pains, study and travail doth he take, to bring things far out of square to a conformity, and to take good heed of Christ’s church to lead his flock into {n. p.} the fold of true doctrine, the hurdles of the same so well underpight that the wolves shall not be able to overthrow them? And as His Majesty purposeth to establish his people in one consent and harmony of pure and true religion, so his tender goodness toward the youth and childhood of his realm, intendeth to have it brought up under one absolute and uniform sort of learning. For His Majesty considering the great encumbrance and confusion of the young and tender wits, by reason of the diversity of grammar rules and teachings (for heretofore every master had his grammar, and every school diverse teachings, and changing of masters and schools did many times utterly dull and undo good wits) hath appointed certain learned men met for such a purpose, to compile one brief, plain, and uniform grammar, which only (all other set apart) for the more speediness, and less trouble of young wits, His Highness hath commanded all schoolmasters and teachers of grammar within this his realm and other his dominions to teach their scholars. Now consider you fathers in this realm, how much ye be bound to such a gracious King, whose care is not only for you, but for your posterity also, and your tender babes. And you schoolmasters of England, to whom the cure and education of tender youth is committed, with what great study and diligence ought you to follow the example of Our Most Gracious Sovereign? Which among the infinite business appertaining to his regal office, so earnestly mindeth the well bringing up of youth in learning and virtue? How glad, how desirous ought you to be, not only to do this his gracious commandment {n. p.} but also busily to apply yourselves to trade and bring up your scholars in good manners, in knowledge of tongues and sciences? And somewhat to declare unto you the condition and quality of this grammar, ye shall understand, that the eight parts of speech, and the construction of the same, be not here set forth in English at large, but compendiously and briefly for the weak capacity of young and tender wits. And therefore, if anything seemeth here to want in these English introductions, ye shall understand it was left out of purpose, and shall be supplied in the Latin rules made for the same intent, which children shall be apt to learn, what time they shall have competent understanding by these former rudiments. You tender babes of England, shake off slothfulness, set wantonness apart, apply your wits holy to learning and virtue, whereby you may do your duty to God and your King, make glad your parents, profit yourselves and much advance the commonwealth of your country. Let noble Prince Edward encourage your tender hearts, a Prince of great towardness, a Prince in whom God hath poured his graces abundantly, a Prince framed of such perfectness of nature, that he is like by the grace of God to ensue the steps of his father’s wisdom, learning, and virtue, and is now almost in a readiness to run in the same race of learning with you. For whom ye have great cause to pray that he may be the son of a long living father.

	Learn diligently
	Love God entirely

{n. p.}

Hexasticon to the boys of England.

Oh little boy, your glory is not little, the King is the one who

provides for the great benefits of your studies.

The King is great to you, little boy, the King willingly

offers the sweet cups of nectarean grammar.

Take the very sweet cups of the generous King,

drink them, you will drain them with an eager mouth.

God save the King {n. p.}

An Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech. In speech be these eight parts following:

noun		adverb	undeclined
pronoun	declined	conjunction
verb		preposition
participle		interjection

Of the Noun

A noun is the name of a thing that may be seen, felt, heard or understand. As the name of my hand in Latin is manus, the name of a house is domus, the name of goodness is bonitas.

Of nouns some be substantives some be adjectives.

A noun substantive is that standeth by himself and requireth not another word to be joined with him, as homo, “a man”, and it is declined with one article, as hic magister, “a master”, or with two, as hic and haec parens, “a father or mother”.

A noun adjective is that cannot stand by himself, bur requireth to be joined with another word, as bonus, “good”, pulcher, “fair”. And it is declined either with three terminations, as bonus, bona, bonum, or else with three articles, as hic, haec and hoc felix, “happy”, hic and haec levis, and hoc leve, “light”.

A noun substantive, either is proper to the thing that it betokeneth, as Eduardus is my proper name, {n. p.} or it is common to more, as homo is a common name to all men.

Numbers of Nouns

In nouns be two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number speaketh of one, as lapis, “a stone”. The plural number speaketh of more than one, as lapides, “stones”.

Cases of Nouns

Nouns be declined with six cases singularly and plurally: the nominative, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the vocative, and the ablative.

The nominative case cometh before the verb, and answereth to this question, “who or what?”, as magister docet, “the master teacheth”.

The genitive case is known by this token of, and answereth to this question, “whose or whereof?”, as doctrina magistri, “the learning of the master”.

The dative case is known by this token to, and answereth to this question, “to whom or to what?”, as do librum magistro, “I give a book to the master”.

The accusative case followeth the verb, and answereth to this question, “whom or what?”, as amo magistrum, “I love the master”.

The vocative case is known by calling or speaking to, as o magister, “o master”.

The ablative case is commonly known by these signs, “in”, “with”, “through”, “for”, “from”, “by”, and “than”, as cum magistro, “with the master”.

Articles

Articles be borrowed of the pronoun, and be thus declined {n. p.}

Singular	nominative hic, haec, hoc		nominative hi, hae, haec
	genitive huius	Plural	genitive horum, harum, horum
	dative huic		dative his
	accusative hunc, hanc, hoc		accusative hos, has, haec
	vocative missing		vocative missing
	ablative hoc, hac, hoc		ablativo his

Genders of Nouns

Genders of nouns be seven: the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, the common of two, the common of three, the doubtful, and the epicene.

The masculine gender is declined with this article hic, as hic vir, “a man”.

The feminine gender is declined with this article haec, as haec mulier, “a woman”.

The neuter is declined with this article hoc, as hoc saxum, “a stone”.

The common of two is declined with hic and haec, as hic and haec parens.

The common of three is declined with hic, haec and hoc, as hic, haec and hoc felix.

The doubtful gender is declined with hic or haec, as hic or haec dies, “a day”.

The epicene gender is declined with one article, and under that one article, both kinds be signified, as hic passer, “a sparrow”, haec aquila, “an eagle”, both he and she.

The Declensions of Nouns

There be five declensions of nouns.

The first is when the genitive and the dative case singular end in ae diphthong, the accusative in am, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in a, {B} the nominative plural in ae diphthong, the genitive in arum, the dative in is, the accusative in as, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in is, as in example:

	nominative haec musa		nominative hae musae
	genitive huius musae		genitive harum musarum
Singular	dative huic musae	Plural	dative his musis
	accusative hanc musam		accusative has musas
	vocative o musa		vocative o musae
	ablative ab hac musa		ablative ab his musis

The second is when the genitive case singular endeth in i, the dative in o, the accusative in um, the vocative for the most part like the nominative, the ablative in o. The nominative plural in i, the genitive in orum, the dative in is, the accusative in os, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in is, as in example:

	nominative hic magister		nominative hi magistri
	genitive huius magistri		genitive horum magistrorum
Singular	dative huic magistro	Plural	dative his magistris
	accusative hunc magistrum		accusative hos magistros
	vocative o magister		vocative o magistri
	ablative ab hoc magistro		ablative ab his magistris

Here is to be noted that when the nominative endeth in us, the vocative shall end in e, as nominative hic dominus, vocative o domine. Except filius, that maketh o fili, and deus, that maketh o deus. When the nominative endeth in ius, if it be a proper name of a man, the vocative shall end in i, as nominative hic Georgius, vocative o Georgi. {n. p.}

Note also that all nouns of the neuter gender, of what declension so ever they be, have the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative like in both numbers. And in the plural number they end all in a, as in example:

	nominative hoc regnum		nominative haec regna
	genitive huius regni		genitive horum regnorum
Singular	dative huic regno	Plural	dative his regnis
	accusative hoc regnum		accusative haec regna
	vocative o regnum		vocative o regna
	ablative ab hoc regno		ablative ab his regnis

Except ambo and duo, which make the neuter gender in o, and be thus declined:

	nominative ambo, ambae, ambo
	genitive amborum, ambarum, amborum
Plural	dative ambobus, ambabus, ambobus
	accusative ambos, ambas, ambo
	vocative ambo, ambae, ambo
	ablative ambobus, ambabus, ambobus	likewise duo

The third is when the genitive case singular endeth in is, the dative in i, the accusative most commonly in em, and sometimes in im, and sometimes in both, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in i, sometimes in e, sometimes in both. The nominative case plural in es, the genitive sometimes in um, and sometime in ium, the dative in bus, the accusative in es, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in bus, as in example: {B. ii.}

	nominative hic lapis		nominative hi lapides
	genitive huius lapidis		genitive horum lapidum
Singular	dative huic lapidi	Plural	dative his lapidibus
	accusative hunc lapidem		accusative hos lapides
	vocative o lapis		vocative o lapides
	ablative ab hoc lapide		ablative ab his lapidibus

	nominative hic and haec parens		nominative hi and hae parentes
	genitive huius parentis		genitive horum and harum parentum
	dative huic parenti		dative his parentibus
Singular	accusative hunc and hanc parentem	Plural	accusative hos and has parentes
	vocative o parens		vocative o parentes
	ablative ab hoc and hac parente		ablative ab his parentibus

The fourth is when the genitive case singular endeth in us, the dative in ui, the accusative in um, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in u. The nominative plural in us, the genitive in uum, the dative in ibus, the accusative in us, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in ibus, as in example:

	nominative hec manus		nominative hae manus
	genitive huius manus		genitive harum manuum
Singular	dative huic manui	Plural	dative his manibus
	accusative hanc manum		accusative has manus
	vocative o manus		vocative o manus
	ablative ab hac manu		ablative ab his manibus

The fifth is when the genitive and the dative case singular end in ei, the accusative in em, the vocative like the nominative, the ablative in e. The nominative plural in es, the genitive in erum, the dative in ebas, the accusative in es, the vocative like the nominative, {n. p.} the ablative in ebus, as in example:

	nominative hic meridies		nominative hi meridies
	genitive huius meridiei		genitive horum meridierum
Singular	dative huic meridiei	Plural	dative his meridiebus
	accusative hunc meridiem		accusative hos meridies
	vocative o meridies		vocative o meridies
	ablative ab hoc meridie		ablative ab his meridiebus

The Declining of Adjectives

A noun adjective of three terminations is thus declined:

	nominative bonus, bona, bonum		nominative boni, bonae, bona
	genitive boni, bonae, boni		genitive bonorum, bonarum, bonorum
Singular	dative bono, bonae, bono	Plural	dative bonis
	accusative bonum, bonam, bonum		accusative bonos, bonas, bona
	vocative bone, bona, bonum		vocative boni, bonae, bona
	ablative bono, bona, bono		ablative bonis

There be besides these certain nouns adjectives of another manner of declining, which make the genitive case singular in ïus or ius, and the dative in i, which be these that follow with their compounds:

	nominative unus, una, unum		nominative uni, unae, una
	genitive unius		genitive unorum, unarum, unorum
Singular	dative uni	Plural	dative unis
	accusative unum, nam, num		accusative unos, unas, una
	vocative une, una, unum		vocative uni, unae, una
	ablative uno, una, uno		ablative unis

In like manner be declined totus, solus, and also ullus, alius, alter, uter, and neuter, except that these five last rehearsed lack the vocative case. {n. p.}

A noun adjective of three articles is thus declined:

	nominative hic, haec, and hoc felix		nominative hi and hae felices, and haec felicia
	genitive huius felicis		genitive horum, harum, and horum felicium
Singular	dative huic felici	Plural	dative his felicibus
	accusative hunc, hanc felicem and hoc felix		accusative hos and has felices and haec felicia
	vocative o felix		vocative o felices and felicia
	ablative ab hoc, hac, hoc felice or felici		ablative ab his felicibus

	nominative hic, haec tristis and hoc triste		nominative hi and hae tristes and hec tristia
	genitive huius tristis		genitive horum, harum, and horum tristium
Singular	dative huic tristi	Plural	dative his trisibus
	accusative hunc, hanc tristem, and hoc triste		accusative hos and has tristes and haec tristia
	vocative o tristis and o triste		vocative o tristes and o tristia
	ablative ab hoc, hac and hoc tristi		ablative ab his tristibus

Comparisons of Nouns

Adjectives, whose signification may increase, or be diminished, receive comparison.

There be three degrees of comparisons:

	the positive
	the comparative
	and the superlative

The positive betokeneth the thing absolutely without excess, as durus, “hard”. {n. p.}

The comparative exceedeth somewhat his positive in signification, as durior, “harder”, and it is formed of the first case of his positive, that endeth in i, by putting thereto or, and us, as of duri, hic and haec durior and hoc durius, of tristi, hic and haec trstior, and hoc tristius, of dulci, hic and haec dulcior and hoc dulcius.

The superlative exceedeth his positive in the highest degree, as durissimus, “hardest”, and it is formed of the first case of his positive that endeth in i, by putting thereto s and simus, as duri, durissimus, tristi, tristissimus, dulci, dulcissimus.

From these general rules be excepted these that follow:

	bonus		malus
	melior		peior
	optimus		pessimus
magnus		parvus		multus plurimus
maior		minor		multa plurima
maximus		minimus		multum plus plurimum

And if the positive end in r, the superlative is formed of the nominative case by putting to rimus, as pulcher pulcherrimus.

Also these nouns ending in lis, make the superlative by changing is into limus, as humilis, humillimus, similis simillimus, facilis, facillimus, gracilis, gracillimus, agilis, agillimus, docilis, docillimus.

All other nouns ending in lis do follow the general rule afore going. {n. p.}

Of the Pronoun.

A pronoun is a part of speech much like a noun, which is used in showing or rehearsing.

There be fifteen pronouns: ego, tu, sui, ille, ipse, iste, hic, is, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, nostras, vestras.

To these may be added their compounds, as egomet, tute, idem, and also qui, quae, quod.

These eight pronouns, ego, tu, sui, ille, ipse, iste, hic, and is be primitives, so called for because they be not derived of other. And they be also called demonstratives because they show a thing not spoken of before.

And these six, hic, ille, iste, is, idem, and qui be relatives because they rehearse a thing that was spoken of before.

These seven, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, nostras, and vestras be derivatives, for they be derived of their primitives, mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri.

There belongeth to a pronoun these five things: number, case, and gender as are in a noun, declension, and person, as here followeth.

The Declensions of Pronouns.

There be four declensions of pronouns.

These three ego, tu, sui be of the first declension, and be thus declined: {n. p.}

	nominative ego		nominative nos
	genitive mei		genitive nostrum or nostri
Singular	dative mihi	Plural	dative nobis
	accusative me		accusative nos
	vocative missing		vocative missing
	ablative a me		ablative a nobis

	nominative tu		nominative vos
	genitive tui		genitive vestrum or vestri
Singular	dative tibi	Plural	dative vobis
	accusative te		accusative vos
	vocative o tu		vocative o vos
	ablative a te		ablative a vobis

	nominative missing		nominative missing
	genitive sui		genitive sui
Singular	dative sibi	Plural	dative sibi
	accusative se		accusative se
	vocative missing		vocative missing
	ablative a se		ablative a se

These six ille, ipse, iste, hic, is, and qui be of the second declension, and be thus declined:

	nominative iste, ista, istud		nominative isti, istae, ista
	genitive istius		genitive istorum, istarum, istorum
Singular	dative isti	Plural	dative istis
	accusative istum, istam, istud		accusative istos, istas, ista
	vocative missing		vocative missing
	ablative isto ista isto		ablative istis

Ille is declined like iste, and also ipse, except that the neuter gender in the nominative case and in the accusative case singular maketh ipsum.

Nominative hic, haec, hoc, genitive huius, as afore in the noun. {C}

	nominative is, ea, id		nominative ii, eae, ea
	genitive eius		genitive eorum, earum, eorum
Singular	dative ei	Plural	dative iis or eis
	accusative eum, eam, id		accusative eos, eas, ea
	vocative missing		vocative missing
	ablative eo ea eo		ablative iis or eis

		qui			qui
	nominative	quae		nominative	quae
		quod			quae
	genitive cuius				quorum
	dative cui			genitive	quarum
Singular		quem	Plural		quorum
	accusative	quam		dative quibus or queis
		quod			quos
	vocative missing			accusative	quas
		quo			quae
	ablative	qua	or qui	vocative missing
		quo		ablative quibus or queis

Likewise quis and quid be declined whether they be interrogatives or indefinites.

Where note that quid is always a substantive of the neuter gender.

These five meus, tuus, suus, noster, and vester, be of the third declension, and be declined as nouns adjectives of three terminations, in this wise:

	nominative meus, mea, meum		nominative mei, meae, mea
	genitive mei, meae, mei		genitive meorum, mearum, meorum
Singular	dative meo, meae, meo	Plural	dative meis
	accusative meum, meam, meum		accusative meos, meas, mea
	vocative mi, mea, meum		vocative mei, meae, mea
	ablative meo, mea, meo		ablative meis

{n. p.}

So is noster declined, and tuus, suus, vester except that these three last do lack the vocative case.

Nostras, vestras and this noun cuias, be of the fourth declension, and be thus declined:

	nominative hic and haec nostras and hoc nostrate		nominative hi and hae nostrates and haec nostratia
	genitive huius nostratis		genitive horum, harum, horum nostratium
Singular	dative huic nostrati	Plural	dative his nostratibus
	accusative hunc, hanc nostratem and hoc nostrate		accusative hos and has nostrates and haec nostrati
	vocative o nostras and o nostrate		vocative o nostrates and o nostratia
	ablative ab hoc, hac, and hoc nostrate or nostrati		ablative ab his nostratibus

Here is to be noted that nostras, vestras, and this noun cuias be called gentiles, because they properly betoken pertaining to countries or nations, to sects or factions.

A pronoun hath three persons.

The first speaketh of himself, as ego, “I”, nos, “we”.

The second person is spoken to, as tu, “thou”, vos, “ye”.

And of this person is also every vocative case.

The third person is spoken of, as ille, “he”, illi, “they”.

And therefore all nouns, pronouns, and participles be of the third person.

Of a Verb

A verb is a part of speech, declined with mode and tense, betokening to do, as amo, “I love”, to suffer, as amor, “I am loved” or to be, as sum, “I am”.

Of verbs such as have persons be called {C. ii.} personals, as ego amo, tu amas. And such as have no persons, be called impersonals, as taedet, “it irketh”, oportet, “it behoveth”.

Of verbs personals there be five kinds: active, passive, neuter, deponent, and common.

A verb active endeth in o, as amo, and by putting to r, may be a passive, as amor.

A verb passive endeth in or, as amor, and by putting away r, may be an active, as amo.

A verb neuter endeth in o or m, and can not take r to make him a passive, as curro, “I run”, sum, “I am”.

A verb deponent endeth in r, and yet in signification is active, as loquor verbum, “I speak a word”, or neuter, as glorior, “I boast”.

A verb common endeth in r, and in signification is both active and passive, as osculor te, “I kiss thee”, osculor a te, “I am kissed of thee”.

Modes

There be six modes: the indicative, the imperative, the optative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the infinitive.

The indicative mode showeth a reason true or false, as ego amo, “I love”, or else asketh a question, as amas tu? “Dost thou love?”.

The imperative biddeth, or commandeth, as ama, “love thou”.

The optative wisheth or desireth with these signs “would God”, “I pray God”, or “God grant”, as utinam amem, “I pray God I love”.

The potential mode is known by these signs “may”, “can”, “might”, “would”, “should”, or “ought”, as amem, “I can or may love”. {n. p.}

The subjunctive joineth sentences together, as cum amarem eram miser, “when I loved I was a wretch”.

The infinitive signifieth doing, suffering, or being, and hath neither number nor person nor nominative case before him, and is known commonly by this sign “to”, as amare, “to love”. Also when two verbs come together without any nominative case between them, then the later shall be the infinitive mode, as cupio discere, “I desire to learn”.

There be moreover belonging to the infinitive mode of verbs certain voices called gerundes ending in di, do, and dum, and have both the active and passive signification, as amandi, “of loving” or “of being loved”, amando, “in loving” or “in being loved”, amandum, “to love” or “to be loved”.

There be also pertaining unto verbs two supines, the one ending in tum, which is called the first supine because it hath the signification of the verb active, as eo amatum, “I go to love”. And the other in tu, which is called the later supine because it hath for the most part the signification passive, as difficilis amatu, “hard to be loved”.

Tenses

There be five tenses or times: the present tense, the preterimperfect tense, the preterperfect, the preterpluperfect, and the future tense.

The present tense speaketh of the time that now is, as amo, “I love”.

The preterimperfect tense speaketh of the time not perfectly past, as amabam, “I loved” or “did love”.

The preterperfect tense speaketh of the time perfectly {C. iii.} past, with this sign “have”, as amavi, “I have loved”.

The preterpluperfect tense speaketh of the time more than perfectly past, with this sign “had”, as amaveram, “I had loved”.

The future tense speaketh of the time to come with this sign “shall” or “will”, as amabo, “I shall or will love”.

Persons

There be also in verbs three persons in both numbers, as singular ego amo “I love”, tu amas “thou lovest”, ille amat “he loveth”. Plural: nos amamus, “we love”, vos amatis “ye love”, illi amant, “they love”.

Conjugations

Verbs have four conjugations, which be known after this manner:

The first conjugation hath a long before re and ris, as amare, amaris.

The second conjugation hath e long before re and ris, as docere, doceris.

The third conjugation hath e short before re and ris, as legere, legeris.

The fourth conjugation hath i long before re and ris, as audire, audiris.

Verbs in o of the four conjugations, be declined after these examples:

Amo, as, amavi, amare, amandi, amando, amandum, amatum, amatu, amans, amaturus, “to love”.

Doceo, doces, docui, docere, docendi, docendo, docendum, doctum, doctu, docens, docturus, “to teach”.

Lego, legis, legi, legere, legendi, legendo, legendum, lectum, lectu, legens, lecturus, “to read”.

Audio, audis, audivi, audire, audiendi, audiendo, audiendum, auditum, auditu, audiens, auditurus, “to hear”. {n. p.}

Indicative

mode the present tense

singular

I love

thou lovest

he loveth

we love

ye love

they love

amo

amas

amat

amamus

amatis

amant

doceo

doces

docet

Plural

docemus

docetis

docent

lego

legis

legit

legimus

legitis

legunt

audio

audis

audit

audimus

auditis

audiunt

The preterimperfect tense singular	amabam	I loved or did love
	docebam		taught
		bas, bat. Plural, bamus, batis, bant
	legebam		read
	audiebam		heard

The preterperfect tense singular	amavi	I have loved
	docui		taught
		isti, it. Plural imus, istis, erunt or ere
	legi		read
	audivi		heard

The preterpluperfect tense singular	amaveram	I had loved
	docueram		taught
		ras, rat. Plural ramus, ratis, rant
	legeram		read
	audiveram		heard

The future tense singular	amabo	I shall or will love
	docebo	bis, bit. Plural bimus, bitis, bunt
			teach
	legam		read
		es, et. Plural emus, etis, ent
	audiam		hear

Imperative mode the present tense singular	love thou	love he, or let him love	love we, or let us love	love ye	love they, or let them love
	ama	amet	amemus	amate	ament
	amato	amato		amatote	amanto
	teach thou	teach he, or let him teach	teach we, or let us teach	teach ye	teach they, or let them teach
	doce	doceat	doceamus	docete	doceant
	doceto	doceto		docetote	docento
	lege	legat	Plural	legite	legant
	legito	legito	legamus	legitote	legunto

{n. p.}

audi		audiat		audiamus		audite		audiant
audito		audito				auditote		audiunto

Preterimperfect tense singular	utinam	amarem	would God I loved
		docerem
		legerem	res, ret. Plural utinam remus, retis, rent
		audirem

Preterperfect tense singular	utinam	amaverim	I pray God I have loved
		docuerim
		legerim	ris, rit. Plural utinam rimus, ritis, rint
		audiverim

Preterpluperfect tense singular	utinam	amavissem	would God I had loved
		docuissem
		legissem	ses, set. Plural utinam semus, setis, sent
		audivissem

Future tense singular	utinam	amavero	God grant I love hereafter
		docuero
		legero	ris, rit. Plural utinam rimus, ritis, rint
		audivero

			I may or can love
Potential mode present tense singular	amem, ames, amet. Plural amemus, ametis, ament
	doceam
	legam	as, at. Plural amus, atis, ant
	audiam

{n. p.}

Preterimperfect tense singular	amarem	I might or could love
	docerem		teach
		res, ret. Plural remus, retis, rent
	legerem		read
	audirem		hear

Preterperfect tense singular	amaverim	I might, should or ought to have loved
	docuerim		taught
		ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
	legerim		read
	audiverim		heard

Preterpluperfect tense singular	amavissem	I might should or ought to had loved
	docuissem		taught
		ses, set. Plural semus, setis, sent
	legissem		read
	audivissem		heard

Future tense singular	amavero	I may or can love hereafter
	docuero		teach
		ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
	legero		read
	audivero		hear

				when I love
Conjunctive mode present singular	cum	amem, ames, amet. Plural amemus, ametis, ament
		doceam			teach
		legam	as, at. Plural amus, atis, ant.		read
		audiam			hear

Preterimperfect tense singular	cum	amarem	when I loved or did love
		docerem		taught or did teach
		legerem	res, ret. Plural remus, retis, rent
		audirem		read or did read
				heard or did hear

Preterperfect tense singular	cum	amaverim	when I have loved
		docuerim		taught
			ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
		legerim		read
		audiverim		heard

Preterpluperfect tense singular	cum	amavissem		when I had loved
		docuissem			taught
				ses, set. Plural semus, setis, sent
		legissem			read
			audivissem			heard

{D. i.}

Future tense singular	cum	amavero	when I shall or will love
		docuero		teach
			ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
		legero		read
		audivero		hear

Infinitive mode present and preterimperfect tense	amare	to love
	docere	teach
	legere	read
	audire	hear

Preterperfect and preterpluperfect tense	amavisse	to have or had loved
	docuisse	to have or had taught
	legisse	to have or had read
	audivisse	to have or had heard

Future tense	amaturum esse	to love hereafter
	docturum esse	to teach hereafter
	lecturum esse	to read hereafter
	auditurum esse	to hear in time to come

Gerunds	amandi	of loving	amando	in loving	amandum	to love
	docendi	of teaching	docendo	in teaching	docendum	to teach
	legendi	of reading	legendo	in reading	legendum	to read
	audiendi	of hearing	audiendo	in hearing	audiendum	to hear

Supines	amatum	to love	amatu	to be loved
	doctum	to teach	doctu	to be taught
	lectum	to read	lectu	to be read
	auditum	to hear	auditu	te be heard

Participle present	amans	loving
	docens	teaching
	legens	reading
	audiens	hearing

{n. p.}

Participle future	amaturus	to love or about to love
	docturus	to teach or about to teach
	lecturus	to read or about to read
	auditurus	to hear or about to hear

Here before we decline any verbs in or, for supplying of many tenses lacking in all such verbs, we must learn to decline this verb sum, in this wise:

Indicative mode present tense singular	sum, es, fui, esse, futurus sum I am, es, est. Plural sumus, estis, sunt
Preterimperfect singular	eram, I was, eras, erat. Plural eramus, eratis, erant
Preterperfect tense	fui, I have been, fuisti, fuit. Plural fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt or fuere
Preterpluperfect tense singular	fueram, I had been, fueras, fuerat. Plural fueramus, fueratis, fuerant
Future tense singular	ero, I shall or will be, eris, erit. Plural eriums, eritis, erunt

Imperative mode present tense singular Optative mode present singular Preterimperfect singular Preterperfect tense singular Preterpluperfect tense singular		sis					sitis	sint
		es		be thou sit		Plural simus este		sunto
		esto			esto		estote
	utinam	sim, I pray God I be, sis, sit. Plural simus, sitis, sint

	utinam	essem, I would God I were, esses, esset. Plural essemus,
			essetis, essent
	utinam	fuerim, I pray God I have been, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus,
			fueritis, fuerint
	utinam	fuissem, would God I had been, fuisses, ses, set. Plural fuissemus,
			fuissetis, fuissent

{D. ii.}

Future tense singular	utinam	fuero, God grant I be hereafter, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint
Potential mode present tense singular Preterimperfect tense singular			sim, I may or can be, sis, sit. Plural simus, sitis sint essem, I might or coulde be, esses, esset. Plural essemus, essetis, essent
Preterperfect tense singular	utinam	fuerim, I might should or ought to have been, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint
Preterpluperfect tense singular	utinam	fuissem, I might should or ought to had been, fuisses, fuisset. Plural fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent
Future tense singular	utinam	fuero, I may be hereafter, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint
Conjunctive mode present singular Preterimperfect singular Preterperfect tense singular Preterpluperfecte tense singular	cum	sim, when I am, sis, sit. Plural simus, sitis, sint essem, when I was, esses, esset. Plural essemus, essetis, essent fuerim, when I have been, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint fuissem, when I had been, fuisses, fuisset. Plural fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent
	cum
	cum
	cum
Future tense singular	cum	fuero, when I shall or will be, fueris, fuerit. Plural fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint

Infinitive mode present and imperfect tense		preterperfect		to have
	esse, to be	and preterpluperfect	fuisse	or had been
Future tense, fore or futurum esse, to be hereafter

{n. p.}

Verbs in or of the four conjugations be declined after these examples:

amor, amaris or amare, amatus sum or fui, amari, amatus, amandus

doceor, doceris or docere, doctus sum or fui, doceri, doctus, docendus

legor, legeris or legere, lectus sum or fui, legi, lectus, legendus

audior, auditis or audire, auditus sum or fui, audiri, auditus, audiendus

Indicative mode present tense singular	amor amaris, or amare, amatur	I am loved
	doceor, doceris, or docere, docetur	I am taught
		Plural mur, mini, tur
	legor, legeris, or legere, legitur	I am read
	audior, audiris, or audire, auditur	I am heard

The preterimperfect tense singular	amabar	I was loved
	docebar		taught
		baris, or bare, batur. Plural bamur, mini, tur
	legebar		read
	audibar		heard

The preterperfect tense singular	amatus	I have been loved		tus es or fuisti, tus est or fuit. Plural ti sumus or imus, ti estis or istis, ti sunt fuerunt or fuere
	doctus		taught
		sum or fui
	lectus		read
	auditus		heard

The preterpluperfect tense singular	amatus	I have been loved		tus eras or fueras, tus erat or fuerat. Plural ti eramus or fueramus, ti eratis or fueratis, ti erant or fuerant
	doctus		taught
		eram or fueram
	lectus		read
	auditus		heard

The future tense singular	amabor	I shall or will be loved
	docebor	beris or ere, bitur, bimur, bimini, buntur
			taught
	legar			read
		eris or ere, etur. Plural emur, emini, entur
	audiar			heard

{D. iii.}

Imperative mode present tense singular	be thou loved	let him be loved	let us be loved	be ye loved	let them be loved
	amare	ametur	Plural amemur	amamini	amentur
	amator	amator	Plural amemur	amaaminor	amantor
	docere	doceatur	Plural doceamur	docemini	doceantur
	docetor	docetor	Plural doceamur	doceminor	docentor
	legere	legatur	Plural legamur	legemini	legantur
	legitor	legitor	Plural legamur	legeminor	leguntor
	audire	audiatur	Plural audiamur	audimini	audiantur
	auditor	auditor	Plural audiamur	audimino	audiunto

				God grant I be loved
Optative mode the present tense singular	utinam	amer, ameris or amere, ametur. Plural amemur, amemini, amentur
		docear			taught
		legar	aris, are, atur. Plural amur, amini, antur		read
		audiar			heard

Preterimperfect tense singular	amarer	would God I were loved
	docerer		taught
		eris or ere, etur. Plural remur, remini, rentur
	legerer		read
	audirer		heard

Preterperfect tense singular	utinam	amatus	would God I have been loved
		doctus	sim or fuerim, sis or fueris, tus sit or fuerit.
		lectus	Plural ti simus or fuerimus, ti sitis or
		auditus	fueritis, ti sint or fuerint

Preterpluperfect tense singular	utinam	amatus	would God I had been loved
		doctus	essem or fuissem, tus esses or fuisses, tus esset
		lectus	or fuisset. Plural ti essemus or fuissemus, ti
		auditus	essetis or fuissetis, ti essent or fuissent

Future tense singular	utinam	amatus	God grant I be loved hereafter
		doctus	ero or fuero, tus eris or fueris, tus erit or
		lectus	fuerit. Plural ti erimus or fuerimus, ti eritis
		auditus	or fueritis, ti erunt or fuerint

{n. p.}

Potential mode present tense singular			I may or can be loved
	amer, ameris or amere, ametur. Plural amemur, amemini, amentur
	docear			taught
	legar	aris or are, atur. Plural amur, amini, antur
	audiar			heard

Preterimperfect tense singular	amarer	I would should or ought to be loved
	docerer		taught
		reris or rere, retur. Plural emur, emini, entur
	legerer		read
	audirer		heard

Preterperfect tense singular	amatus	I would, should or ought to have been loved
	doctus	sim or fuerim, tus sis or fueris, tus sit or
	lectus	fuerit. Plural ti simus or fuerimus, ti sitis
	auditus	or fueritis, ti sint or fuerint

Preterpluperfect tense singular	amatus	I would, should or ought to had been loved
	doctus	essem or fuissem, tus esses or fuisses, tus esset
	lectus auditus	or fuisset. Plural ti essemus or fuissemus, ti essetis or fuissetis, ti essent or fuissent

Future tense singular	amatus	I may or can be loved hereafter
	doctus	ero or fuero, tus eris or fueris, tus erit or
	lectus	fuerit. Plural ti erimus or fuerimus, ti eritis
	auditus	or fueritis, ti erunt or fuerint

Conjunctive mode present singular	cum			when I am loved
		amer, ameris or amere, ametur. Plural amemur, amemini, amentur
		docear			taught
		legar	aris, or are, atur. Plural amur, amini, antur		read
		audiar			heard

Preterimperfect tense singular	cum	amarer	when I was loved
		docerer		taught
			reris or rere, etur. Plural emur, emini, rentur
		legerer		read
		audirer		heard

{n. p.}

Preterperfect tense singular	cum	amatus	when I have been loved
		doctus	sim or fuerim, tus sis or fueris, tus sit or
		lectus	fuerit. Plural ti simus or fuerimus, ti sitis
		auditus	or fueritis, ti sint or fuerint

Preterpluperfect tense singular	cum	amatus	when I had been loved
		doctus	essem or fuissem, tus esses or fuisses, tus esset
		lectus	or fuisset. Plural ti essemus or fuissemus, ti
		auditus	essetis or fuissetis, ti essent or fuissent

Future tense singular	cum	amatus	when I shall or will be loved
		doctus	ero or fuero, tus eris or fueris, tus eris or
		lectus	fuerit. Plural ti erimus or fuerimus, ti eritis
		auditus	or fueritis, ti erunt or fuerint

Infinitive mode present and preterimperfect tense	amari	to be loved
	doceri	to be taught
	legi	to be read
	audiri	to be heard

Preterperfect and preterpluperfect tense	amatum	to have or had been loved
	doctum	to have or had been taught
		esse or fuisse
	lectum	to have or had been read
	auditum	to have or had been heard

Future tense	amatum iri or amandum esse	to be loved hereafter
	doctum iri or docendum esse	taught hereafter
	lectum iri or legendum esse	read hereafter
	auditum iri or audiendum esse	heard hereafter

Participle preterite	amatus	loved	amandus	to be loved hereafter
	doctus	taught	docendus	taught
		participle future
	lectus	read	legendus	read
	auditus	heard	audiendus	heard

{n. p.}

	possum, potes, potui, posse, potens, to may or can
	volo, vis, volui, velle, volendi, volendo, volendum, supine missing, volens, to will
	nolo, non vis, nolui, nolle, nolendi, nolendo, nolendum, supine missing, nolens, to nill
	malo, mavis, malui, malle, malendi, malendo, malendum, supine missing, malens, to have liefer
	edo, edes or edis, edi, edere or esse, edendi, edendo, edendum, esum, esu, edens, esurus, to eat
	fio, fis, factus sum, fieri, factus, fiendus, to be made
	fero, fers, tuli, ferre, ferendi, ferendo, ferendum, latum, latu, ferens laturus, to bear or to suffer
	feror, ferris, latus sum or fui, ferri, latus, ferendus, to be born or suffered

Indicative mode present tense singular	possum, potes, potest			possumus,potestis, possunt
	volo, vis, vult			volumus, vultis, volunt
	nolo, non vis, non vult			nolumus, non vultis, nolunt
	malo, mavis, mavult			malumus,mavultis, malunt
	edo, edis or es edit		Plural	edimus, editis or estis, edunt
	fio, fis, fit or est			fimus, fitis, fiunt
	fero, fers, fert			ferimus, fertis, ferunt
	feror, ferris	fert		ferimus, ferimini, feruntur
	or ferre

Preterimperfect tense singular	poteram
	volebam
	nolebam
	malebam	as, at. Plural amus, atis, ant
	edebam
	fiebam
	ferebam
	ferebar	ferebaris or	ferebatur. Plurali ferebamur, ferebamini, ferebatur
		ferebare

{E}

Preterperfect tense singular	potui	isti, it. Plural imus, istis, erunt or ere
	volui
	nolui
	malui
	edi
	tuli

				sum or fui, tus es or fuisti, tus est or fuit
	factus			Plural ti sumus or fuimus, ti estis or
	latus			fuistis, ti sunt fuerunt or fuere

Preterpluperfect tense singular	potueram	ras, rat. Plural ramus, ratis rant
	volueram
	nolueram
	malueram
	ederam
	tuleram

			eram or fueram, tus eras or fueras, tus erat
	factus		or fuerat. Plural ti eramus or fueramus, ti
	latus		eratis or fueratis, ti erant or fuerant

Future tense singular	potero, poteris, poterit. Plural poterimus, poteritis, poterunt
	volam	es, et. Plural emus, etis, ent
	nolam
	malam
	edam
	fiam feram

ferar		fereris or		feretur. Plural feremur, feremini, ferentur
		ferere

Imperative mode	possum
	volo	have none imperative mode
	malo

{n. p.}

Singulariter

noli

nolite nolitote

nolito

edat

edite este

edant

es, esto

esto

edamus

estote

edunto

ede, edito

edito

editote

fitotu, fiat

Plural

fiamus

fite

fiant

fito

fitote

fiunto

fer

ferat

feramus

ferte

ferant

ferto

fertote

ferunto

ferre

feratur

feramur

ferimini

ferantor

fertor

feriminor

feruntor

Optative mode the present tense singular	utinam		possim	is, it. Plural imus, itis, int
			volim
			nolim
			malim
			edam
			fiam	as, at. Plural amus, atis, ant
			feram
		ferar, feraris or ferare, feratur. Plural feramur, feramini, ferantur

Preterimperfect tense singular	utinam		possem	es, et. Plural emus, etis, ent
			vellem
			nollem
			mallem
			ederem
			or essem
			fierem
			ferrem
		ferrer, ferreris, or ferrere, ferretur. Plural ferremur, ferremini, ferrentur

Preterperfect tense singular	potuerim	ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
	voluerim
	noluerim
	maluerim
	ederim
	tulerim

{E. ii.}

				sim or fuerim, tus sis or fueris, tus sit or
		factus		fuerit. Plural ti simus or fuerimus, ti sitis
		latus		or fueritis, ti sint or fuerint

Preterpluperfect tense singular	utinam	potuissem	ses, set. Plural semus, setis, sent
		voluissem
		noluissem
		maluissem
		edissem
		tulissem

					essem or fuissem, tus esses or fuisses, tus esset or fuisset. Plural ti essemus or fuissemus, ti essetis or fuissetis, ti essent or fuissent
		factus
		latus

Future tense singular	utinam	potuero	ris, rit. Plural rimus, ritis, rint
		voluero
		noluero
		maluero
		edero
		tulero

					ero or fuero, tus eris or fueris, tus erit or fuerit. Plural ti erimus or fuerimus, ti eritis or fueritis, ti erunt or fuerint
		factus
		latus

The potential and the subjunctive mode be formed and conjugated or varied like the optative.

Infinitive mode present and preterimperfect tense	posse	preterperfect and preterpluperfect	potuisse	future
	velle		voluisse
	nolle		noluisse
	malle		maluisse
	edere or esse		edisse		esurum
	ferre		tulisse		laturum esse

{n. p.}

	fieri		preterperfect and		factum esse or fuisse	present and preterimperfect tense
	ferri		preterpluperfect		latum esse or fuisse

	factum iri or faciendum esse	future tense
	latum iri or ferendum esse

Eo and queo make ibam and quibam in the preterimperfect tense of the indicative mode: and ibo and quibo in the future tense, and in all other modes and tenses are varied like verbs in o of the fourth conjugation, saving that they make the gerunds eundi, eundo, eundum, queundi, queundo, queundum.

Of the preterperfect tense of the indicative mode be formed the preterpluperfect tense of the same mode. The preterperfect tense, the preterpluperfect tense, and the future tense of the optative mode, the potential mode, and the subjunctive mode. The preterperfect and pluperfect tense of the infinitive mode, as of amavi, are formed amaveram, amaverim, amavissem, amavero, amavisse, amaveram, amaverim, and amavero, by changing i into e, sem, and se, keeping i still.

Impersonals be declined in the voice of the third person throughout all modes and tenses, as delectat, delectabat, decet, decebat, and have commonly before their English this sign “it”, as it “delighteth me to read”, delectat me legere.

forming of tenses

{E. iii.}

Of a Participle

A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb and taketh part of a noun as gender and case, part of a verb as tense and signification, and part of both as number and figure.

A participle hath four tenses: the present, the preter, the future in rus, and the future in dus.

A participle of the present tense hath his English ending in ing, as “loving”, and his Latin in ans, or ens, as amans, docens, and it is formed of the preterimperfect tense by changing bam into ens, as amabam, amans, audiebam, audiens.

A participle of the future in rus, betokeneth to do like the infinitive mode of the active voice, as amaturus, “to love or about to love”. And is formed of the later supine, by putting to rus, as doctu, docturus.

A participle of the preter tense hath his English ending in “d”, “t”, or “n”, as “loved”, “taught”, “slain”, and his Latin endeth in tus, sus, xus, as amatus, visus, nexus, and one in uus, as mortuus. And is formed of the later supine by putting to s, as lectu lectus.

A participle of the future in dus, betokeneth to suffer like the infinitive mode of the passive voice, as amandus, “to be loved”. And it is formed of the genitive case of the participle of the present tense by changing tis into dus, as legentis, legendus. And it is also found to have the signification of the present tense, as legendis veteribus proficis, “in reading old authors thou dost profit”. {n. p.}

Of a verb active and of a verb neuter, which hath the supines, come two participles, one of the present tense, and another of the future in rus, as of amo cometh amans, amaturus, of curro, currens, cursurus.

Of a verb passive, whose active hath the supines, come two participles, one of the preter tense, and another of the future in dus, as of amor, cometh amatus, amandus.

Of a verb deponent cometh three participles, one of the present tense, one of the preter tense, and another of the future in rus, as of auxilior, auxilians, auxiliatus, auxiliaturus. And if the verb deponent governeth an accusative case after him, it may form also a participle in dus, as of loquor, loquendus.

Of a verb common cometh four participles, as of largior cometh largiens, largiturus, largitus, largiendus.

Participles of the present tense be declined like nouns adjectives with three articles, as hic, haec and hoc amans.

Participles of other tenses be declined like nouns adjectives of three divers endings, as amaturus, amas, amandus, amanda, amandum.

Of an Adverb

An adverb is a part of speech, joined to the verbs to declare his signification.

Adverbs some be of time, as hodie, cras, olim, aliquando.

Some of place, as ubi, ibi, hic, istic, illic, foras, foris. {n. p.}

Some of number, as semel, bis, ter, quater.

Some of order, as inde, deinde, denique, postremo.

Some of asking or doubting, as cur, quare, unde, quorsum, num, numquid.

Some of calling, as heus, o, ehodum.

Some of affirming, as certe, nae, profecto, sane, scilicet, licet, esto.

Some of denying, as non, haud, minime, nequaquam.

Some of swearing, as pol, aedepol, hercle, medius fidius.

Some of exhorting, as eia, age, agedum.

Some of flattering, as sodes, amabo.

Some of forbidding, as ne.

Some of wishing, as utinam, si, o si, o.

Some of gathering together, as simul, una, pariter, non modo, non solum.

Some of parting, as seorsum, sigillatim, vicatim.

Some of choosing, as potius, imo.

Some of a thing non finished, as pene, fere, vix, modo non.

Some of showing, as en, ecce.

Some of doubting, as forsan, forsitan, fortassis, fortasse.

Some of chance, as forte, fortuito.

Some of likeness, as sic, sicut, quasi, ceu, tamquam, velut.

Some of quality, as bene, male, docte, fortiter.

Some of quantity, as multum, parum, minimum, paululum.

Some of comparison, as tam, quam, magis, minus, maxime.

Certain adverbs be compared, as docte, doctius, doctissime: fortiter, fortius, fortissime, prope, propius, proxime.

{n. p.}

Of a Conjunction

A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth words and sentences together.

Of conjunctions some be copulatives, as et, que, quoque, atque, nec, neque.

Some disjunctives, as aut, ve, vel, seu, sive.

Some discretives, as sed, quidem, autem, vero, at, ast.

Some causals, as nam, namque, enim, etenim, quia, ut, quod, quando, quum.

Some conditionals, as si, sin, modo, dum, dummodo.

Some exceptives, as ni, nisi, quin, alioquin, praeterquam.

Some interrogatives, as ne, an, verum, necne, anne, nonne.

Some illatives, as ergo, ideo, igitur, quare, itaque, proin.

Some adversatives, as etsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet.

Some redditives to the same, as tamen, attamen.

Some electievs, as quam, ac, atque.

Some diminutives, as saltem, vel.

Of a Preposition

A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts in apposition, as ad patrem, or in composition, as indoctus.

These prepositions following serve to the accusative case: {F. i.}

ad	to	extra	without	post	after
apud	at	intra	within	trans	on the further side
ante	before	inter	between	ultra	beyond
adversus	against	infra	beneath	praeter	beside
adversum	against	iuxta	beside or nigh to	supra	above
cis	on this side	ob	for	circiter	about
citra	on this side	pone	behind	usque	until
circum	about	per	by or through	secus	by
circa	about	prope	nigh	versus	towards
contra	against	propter	for	penes	in the power
erga	towards	secundum	after		in the power

Where note that versus is set after his casual word, as Londinum versus, “towards London”. And likewise may penes be set also.

These prepositions following serve to the ablative case:

a		pro	or
ab	from or	prae	before or in comparison
abs	fro	palam	openly
cum	with	sine	without
coram	before or in presence	absque
clam	privily	tenus	until or unto
de
e	of or fro
ex

Where note that, if the casual word joined with tenus be the plural number, it shall be put in the genitive case and be set before tenus, as aurium tenus, “up to the ears”. {n. p.}

These prepositions following serve to both cases, as in, with this signe to, to the ablative case, as in urbem, “into the city”.

In without this sign “to”, to the ablative, as in te spes est, “my hope is in thee”.

Sub noctem, “a little before night”.

Sub iudice lis est, “the matter is before the judge”.

Super lapidem, “upon a stone”.

Super viridi fronde, “upon green leaves”.

Subter terram, “under the earth”.

Subter aqua, “under the water”.

Of an Interjection

An interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a passion of the mind, under an unperfect voice.

Some are of mirth, as euax, vah.

Some of sorrow, as heu, hei.

Some of dread, as atat.

Some of marvelling, as pape.

Some of disdaining, as hem, vah.

Some of shunning, as apage.

Some of praising, as euge.

Some of scorning, as hui.

Some of exclamation, as proh deum atque hominum fidem. O.

Some of cursing, as vae, malum.

Some of laughing, as hah, ha, he.

Some of calling, as eho, oh, io.

Some of silence, as au. And such other. {F. ii.}

Godly Lessons for Children

It is the first point of wisdom, to know thyself.

Primus est sapientiae gradus te ipsum noscere.

Fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.

Initium sapientiae timor domini.

There is no man that sinneth not.

Non est homo qui non peccet.

If we say we be faultless we deceive ourselves, and truth is not in us.

Si dixerimus peccatum non habemus, nos ipsos fallimus, et veritas in nobis non est.

So God loved the world that he gave his only begotten son, that none which believeth in him should perish, but enjoy everlasting life.

Sic deus dilexit mundum, ut filium suum unigenitum daret, ut omnis qui credit in eum, non pereat, sed habeat vitam aeternam.

Christ is the lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world.

Christus est agnus dei, qui tollit peccata mundi.

There is none other name under heaven, given unto men, by the which we must be saved.

Non est aliud nomen sub caelo datum hominibus, in quo oporteat non salvos fieri.

He that hath my commandments, and keepeth them, it is he that loveth me. {n. p.}

Qui habet praecepta mea, et servat ea, ille est qui diligit me.

Ye be my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you.

Vos amici mei estis, si feceritis quaecumque ego praecipio vobis.

I give you a new commandment, to love each other as I have loved you.

Praeceptum novum do vobis, ut diligatis mutuo sicut dilexi vos.

Not the hearers of the law be just before God, but they that express the law in their works shall be counted just.

Non qui audiunt legem iusti sunt apud deum, sed qui legem factis exprimunt iusti habebuntur.

Honour thy father and mother, that thou mayest do well, and live long upon the earth.

Honora patrem et matrem, ut bene tibi sit, et sis longaevus in terra.

Be subject to the King, as to the most excellent, and to his deputies, which be sent of him.

Regi subditi estote tamquam praecellenti, et praesidibus ut qui ab eo mittantur.

Do reverence to age.

Coram cano capite assurge.

Thou shalt not hurt no widow, ne none that is fatherless.

Viduae et pupillo non nocebis.

Thou shalt upbraid no stranger.

Advenae non exprobrabis.

Nothing is given more truly to Christ than that that is given to the poor.

Nihil verius datur Christo, quam quod egenis confertur. {F. iii.}

See not when thou givest, have an eye when thou takest.

Da caecus, accipe oculatus.

A good conscience is a sure defence.

Murus aeneus sana conscientia.

Be in deed as thou dost pretend.

Quod videri vis esto.

It is true honour to be worshipped for virtue.

Verus honor est venerari ob virtutem.

It is true glory to be well reported for virtue.

Vera gloria est bene audire ob virtutem.

It is true nobility to be like in conditions to the good parents.

Vera nobilitas est bonis parentibus esse moribus similis.

It is true power to have many whom thou mayest do for.

Vera potentia est habere multos quibus probe consulas.

There is no stronger defence than faithful friends.

Nullum potentius satellitium quam amici fideles.

Friendship is the sauce of life.

Sal vitae amicitia.

There is no true friendship but among good men.

Vera amicitia non est nisi inter bonos.

Pleasure is the bait of mischiefs.

Voluptas malorum esca.

Memory is made weak with delicates.

Memoria deliciis enervatur.

Divers meats be noisome to man, but divers sauces more noisome.

Varietas ciborum homini pestilens, pestilentior condimentorum.

Wine is poison to the sinews and the destruction of memory. {n. p.}

Vinum nervorum venenum et memoriae mors est.

Gay garments provoke to pride.

Culta vestimenta sunt instrumenta superbiae.

Be not ashamed to learn things that thou knowest not.

Quae ignoras ne pudeat quaerere.

Learn of fools to be more aware.

Ex stultis disce quo fias cautior.

Learn of wise men that thou mayest be the better.

Ex sapientibus disce quo fias melior.

Time ought to be much set by.

Magno aestimandum tempus.

Truth is the daughter of time.

Veritas temporis filia.

A true man is believed, yea though he lieth.

Veraci creditur et mentienti.

A liar is not believed though he sweareth.

Mendaci non creditur ne iurato quidem.

Let no day scape without profit.

Nullus praetereat sine linea dies.

The Concords of Latin Speech

For the due joining of words in construction it is to be understand that in Latin speech there be three concords: the first between the nominative case and the verb, the second between the substantive and the adjective, the third between the antecedent and the relative.

When an English is given to be made in Latin, {n. p.} look out the principal verb. If there be more verbs than one in a sentence, the first is the principal verb, except it be the infinitive mode, or have before it a relative, as “that”, “whom”, “which”, or a conjunction as ut (that), cum (when), si if, or such other.

When ye have found the verb, ask this question “who or what?”, and that word that answereth to the question shall be the nominative case to the verb. Which nominative case shall in making and construing Latin be set before the verb, except in asking a question, and then the nominative is set after the verb or after the sign of the verb, as amas tu? “Lovest thou?”; Venit ne rex? “Doth the King come?”

The First Concord

A verb personal agreeth with his nominative case in number and person, as “the master readeth and ye regard not”, praeceptor legit, vos vero negligitis.

Where note that the first person is more worthy than the second, and the second more worthy than the third.

Many nominative cases singular with a conjunction copulative coming between them will have a verb plural, which verb plural shall agree in person with the nominative case of the most worthy person, as “I and thou be in safeguard”, ego et tu sumus in tuto; “thou and thy father are in jeopardy”, tu et pater periclitamini; “thy father and thy master have sent for thee”, pater et praeceptor accersunt te.

When a verb cometh between two nominative cases of divers numbers, the verb may indifferently accord with either of them, so that they be both of one person, as amantium irae amoris redintegratio est, {n. p.} “the falling out of lovers is a renewing of love”; quid enim nisi vota supersunt? “For what remaineth saving only prayers?”

The Second Concord

When ye have an adjective, ask this question “who or what?”, and that that answereth to the question shall be the substantive.

The noun adjective agreeth with his substantive in case, gender, and number, as “a sure friend is tried in a doubtful matter”, amicus certus in re incerta cernitur.

Likewise, participles and pronouns be joined with substantives, as “a man armed”, homo armatus; “a field to be tilled”, ager colendus; “this man”, hic vir; “it is my master”, meus herus est.

Here note that the masculine gender is more worthy then the feminine, and the feminine more worthy than the neuter.

Many substantives singular, with a conjunction copulative coming between them, will have an adjective plural, which adjective shall agree with the substantive of most worthy gender, as “the King and the Queen blessed”, rex et regina beati.

The Third Concord

When ye have a relative ask this question, “who or what?”, and that that answereth to the question shall be the antecedent, which is a word that goeth before the relative, and is rehearsed again of the relative.

The relative agreeth with his antecedent in gender, number, and person, as “that man is wise that speaketh few”, vir sapit qui pauca loquitur. {G}

When this English “that” may be turned into this English which, it is a relative, otherwise it is a conjunction, which in Latin is called quod or ut, and it may elegantly be put away by turning the nominative case into the accusative, and the verb into the infinitive mode, as “I am glad that thou art in good health”, gaudeo quod tu bene vales, gaudeo te bene valere; “I bid thee to go hence”, iubeo ut abeas, iubeo te abire.

Many antecedents singular, having a conjunction copulative between them, will have a relative plural, which relative shall agree with the antecedent of the most worthy gender, as “the rule and dignity which thou hast required”, imperium et dignitas quae petiisti. For in things not apt to have life the neuter gender is most worthy, yea and in such case though the substantives or antecedents be of the masculine or of the feminine gender, and none of them of the neuter, yet may the adjective or relative be put in the neuter gender, as “the bow and arrows be good”, arcus et calami sunt bona; “the bow and arrows which thou hast broken”, arcus et calami quae fregisti.

The Case of the Relative

When there cometh no nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall be the nominative case to the verb, as “wretched is that person which is in love with money”, miser est qui nummos admiratur.

But when there cometh a nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall be such case as the verb will have after him, as “happy is he whom other men harms do make to beware”, felix quem faciunt aliena pericula cautum. {n. p.}

When a relative cometh between two substantives of diverse genders, it may indifferentely accord with either of them, as “the bird which is called a sparrow”, avis quae passer appellatur, or avis qui passer appellatur.

Nouns interrogatives and infinites follow the rule of the relative, as quis, uter, qualis, quantus, quotus, etc., which ever come before the verb, like the relative, as hei mihi qualis erat, talis erat, qualem numquam vidi.

Construction of Nouns Substantives

When two substantives come together betokening diverse things, the later shall be the genitive case, as “the eloquence of Cicero”, facundia Ciceronis; “the book of Vergil”, codex Vergilii; “a lover of studies”, amator studiorum; “the opinion of Plato”, dogma Platonis.

But if they belong both to one thing, they shall be put both in one case, as “my father being a man, loveth me a child”, pater meus vir, amat me puerum.

When the English of this word res is put with an adjective, ye may put away res and put the adjective in the neuter gender like a substantive, as “many things have let me”, multa me impedierunt.

An adjective in the neuter gender, put alone without a substantive, standeth for a substantive and may have a genitive case after him as if it were a substantive, as “much gains”, multum lucri; “how much business”, quantum negotii; “That work”, id operis.

The praise or dispraise of a thing is used diversely, but most commonly in the ablative or in the genitive case, as “a child of a good towardness”, puer bona indole, puer bonae indolis. {G. ii.}

Opus et usus, Latin for need, require an ablative case, as “I have need of thy judgement”, opus est mihi tuo iudicio: “my son hath need of twenty pounds”, viginti minis usus est filio.

Construction of Sdjectives

The Genitive Case

Adjectives that signify desire, knowledge, remembrance, or contrary wise, and such like, require a genitive case, as “covetous of money”, cupidus auri; “expert of warfare”, peritus belli; “Ignorant of all things”, ignarus omnium; “bold of heart”, fidens animi; “doubtful of mind”, dubius mentis; “mindful of that is past”, memor praeteriti; “accused of theft”, reus furti.

Nouns partitives and certain interrogatives, with certain nouns of number, require a genitive case, as aliquis, uter, neuter, nemo, nullus, solus, unus, medius, quisque, quisquis, quicumque, quidam, quis, for aliquis, or quis, an interrogative, unus, duo, tres, etc., primus, secundus, tertius etc., as aliquis nostrum. Primus omnium.

When a question is asked, I shall answer by the same case and tense that the question was asked by, as cuius est fundus? Vicini. Quid agitur in ludo literario? Studetur. Except the question be asked by cuius, cuia, cuium, as cuia est sententia? Ciceronis. Or by a word that may govern diverse cases, as quanti emisti librum? Parvo. Or except I must answer by one of these possessives, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, as cuius est domus? Non vestra, sed nostra.

Nouns of the comparative and the superlative degree, put partitively, that is to say with this English {n. p.} “of” or “among” after them, require a genitive case, as “of the ears the left is the softer”, aurium mollior est sinistra; “Cicero the most eloquent of orators”, Cicero oratorum eloquentissimus.

Nouns of the comparative degree, having “than” or “by” after them, will have an ablative case, as frigideor glacie, “more cold than ice”; doctior multo, “better learned by a great deal”; uno pede altior, higher by a foot.

The Dative Case

Adjectives that betoken profit or disprofit, likeness, unlikeness, pleasure, submitting, or belonging to any thing, require a dative case, as “labour is profitable to the body”, labor est utilis corpori; “equal to Hector”, aequalis Hectori; “fit for war”, idoneus bello; “pleasant to all persons”, iucundus omnibus; “suppliant to his father”, parenti supplex; “proper to me”, mihi proprium. Likewise nouns of the passive signification in bilis, and participials in dus, as flebilis flendus omnibus, “to be lamented of all men”; formidabilis formidandus hosti, “to be feared of his enemy”.

The Accusative Case

The measure of length, breadth, or thickness of anything is put after adjectives in the accusative case, and sometime in the ablative case, as turris alta centum pedes, “a tower an hundred foot high”; arbor lata tres digitos, “a tree three fingers broad”; liber crassus tres pollices, or tribus pollicibus, “a book thrice inches thick”.

The Ablative Case

Adjectives signifying fullness, emptiness, plenty, {n. p.} or wanting, require an ablative case, and sometimes a genitive, as copiis abundans. Crura thymo plena. Vacuus ira, irae, ab ira. Nulla epistola inanis re aliqua. Ditissimus agri. Stultorum plena sunt omnia. Quis nisi mentis inops oblatum respuat aurum? Integer vitae scelerisque purus. Non eget Mauri iaculis nec arcu. Expers omnium, corpus inane animae.

These adjectives dignus, indignus, praeditus, captus, contentus, with such other, will have an ablative case, as dignus honore; captus oculis; virtute praeditus; paucis contentus.

Construction of the Pronoun

These genitive cases of primitives, mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri, be used when suffering is signified, as pars tui, amor mei, but when doing is signified, meus, tuus, suus, noster, and vester be used, as ars tua, imago tua.

These genitive cases, nostrum, vestrum, be used after distributives, partitives, comparatives, and superlatives, as nemo vestrum, aliquis nostrum, maior vestrum, maximus natu nostrum.

Construction of the Verb, and First with the Nominative Case

Sum, forem, fio, existo, and certain verbs passives, as vocor, salutor, and verbs of behaviour or gesture, as bibo, cubo, dormio, will have such case after them as they have before them, as fama est malum; malus cultura fit bonus; craesus vocatur dives; Horatius salutatur poeta; virtus clara aeternaque habetur; dormit securus bibit ieiunus; Petrus studet videri dives; malo me divitem esse quam haberi. {n. p.}

The Genitive Case

This verb sum, betokening possession or pertaining to anything, will have a genitive case, as haec vestis est patris; insipientis est dicere, non putaram.

Except these nominative cases, meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum, as meum est iniuriam non adferre, tuum est iuxta omnia pati.

Verbs that betoken to esteem or regard require a genitive case, as parvi ducitur probitas, maximi penditur nobilitas.

Verbs of accusing, condemning or warning and verbs of contrary signification will have a genitive case, or an ablative of the cause, most commonly without a preposition but sometime with a preposition, as hic furti se alligat vel furto, admonuit me errati vel errato; de pecuniis repetundis damnatus est.

Satago, misereor, miseresco require a genitive case, as rerum suarum satagit; miserere mei deus.

Reminiscor, obliviscor, memini, will have a genitive or an accusative case, as reminiscor historiae, obliviscor carminis, recordor pueritiam, obliviscor lectionem; memini tui vel de te, “I speak of thee”; memini te, “I remember thee”.

Egeo, indigeo tui or te, “I have need of thee”; potior urbis, “I conquer the city”; potior voto, “I obtain my desire”.

The Dative Case

All manner of verbs put acquisitively, that is to say, with these tokens “to” or “for” after them, will have a dative case, as non omnibus dormio, “I sleep not to al men”; huic habeo non tibi, “I have it for this man, and not for thee”. {n. p.}

To this rule doth belong also verbs betokening

to profit or disprofit, as		to compare, as
	commodo		comparo
	incommodo		compono
	noceo		confero

to give or restore, as		to promise or to pay, as		to command or to show, as
	dono		promitto		impero
	reddo		polliceor		indico
	refero		solvo		monstro

to trust, as		to obey or to be against, as		to threaten or to be angry
	fido		obedio		minor
	confido		adulor		indignor
	fidem habeo		repugno		irascor

Sum, with his compounds except possum, also verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male, as satisfacio, benefacio, malefacio, finally certain verbs compounded with these prepositions, prae, ad, con, sub, an, post, ob, in, and inter, will have a dative case, as praeluceo, adiaceo, commigro, suboleo, antesto, posthabeo, obiicio, insulto, intersero.

Est, put for habeo, will have a dative case, as est tibi mater. Also sum and many other verbs will have a double dative case, as sum tibi praesidio; do tibi vestem pignori; verto hoc tibi vitio; hoc tu tibi laudi ducis.

The ccusative case

Verbs transitives are all such as have after them an accusative case of the sufferer, whether they be actives, common, or deponents, as usus promptos facit; feminae ludificantur viros; largitur pecuniam.

Also verbs neuters may have an accusative case of their own signification, as Endimionis somnum dormis; gaudeo gaudium; vivo vitam.

Verbs of asking, teaching, and arraying, will {n. p.} have two accusative cases, one of the sufferer, and the other of the thing, as rogo te pecuniam, doceo te literas, quod te iamdudum hortor, exuo me gladium.

The Ablative Case

All verbs require an ablative case of the instrument or of the cause, or of the manner of doing, as ferit cum gladio, taceo metu, summa eloquentia causam egit.

The word of price is put after verbs in the ablative case, as vendidi auro, emptus sum argento. Except these genitives when they be put alone without substantives, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, tantivis, tantidem, quantivis, quantilibet, quanticumque, as quanti mercatus es hunc equum? Certe pluris quam vellem.

Verbs of plenty or scarceness, filling or emptying, loading or unloading, will have an ablative case, as affluis opibus, cares virtute, expleo te fabulis, spoliavit me bonis omnibus, oneras stomachum cibo, levabo te hoc onere. Likewise fungor, fruor, laetor, gaudeo, dignor, muto, munero, communico, afficio, prosequor.

Verbs that betoken receiving, distance or taking away will have an ablative case with a, ab, e, ex, or de, as accepi literas a Petro; audivi a nuntio; longe distat a nobis; eripui te a malis. And this ablative may be turned into the dative, as subtraxit mihi cingulum.

Verbs of comparison or exceeding may have an ablative case of the word that signifieth the measure of exceeding, as praefero hunc multo; paulo illum superat.

A noun or a pronoun substantive joined with a participle, expressed or understand, and having none other word whereof it may be governed, shall be put in the ablative case absolute, as “the King coming, the enemies fled”, rege veniente hostes fugerunt; “I being {H} captain, thou shalt overcome”, me duce vinces. And it may be resolved by any of these words, dum, cum, quando, si, quamquam, or postquam, as rege veniente that is dum veniret rex; me duce id est si ego dux fuero.

Construction of Passives

A verb passive will have after him an ablative case with a preposition or sometimes a dative of the doer, as Vergilius legitur a me; tibi fama petatur. And the same ablative or dative shall be the nominative case to the verb if it be made by the active, as ego lego Vergilium; petas tu famam.

Gerunds

Gerunds and supines will have such case as the verbs that they come of, as otium scribendi literas; ad consulendum tibi; auditum poetas.

The gerund in di is put after certain substantives, as studium, causa, tempus; otium, occasio, libido; spes, oportunitas, voluptas; modus, gestus, satietas; potestas, licentia, consuetudo; consilium, vis, norma; amor, cupido, locus, and others like.

It cometh also after certain adjectives, as cupidus visendi, certus eundi; peritus medicandi, gnarus bellandi.

When I have the English of the participle of the present tense with this sign “of”, or “with”, coming after a noun adjective, it shall in Latin making be put in the gerund in do, as defessus sum ambulando.

Also the English of the participle of the present tense, coming without a substantive, with this sign “in” or “by” before him, shall in Latin making be put in {n. p.} the gerund in do, as Caeser dando, sublevando, ignoscendo, gloriam adeptus est. In apparando, totum hunc consumunt diem.

And the gerund in do is used either without a preposition or with one of these prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, cum, in, as deterrent a bibendo, ab amando, cogitat de edendo, ratio bene scribendi cum loquendo coniuncta est.

Dum

The English of the infinitive mode coming after a reason and showing a cause of the reason may be put in the gerund in dum, as dies mihi ut satis sit ad agendum, vereor.

The gerund in dum is used after one of these prepositions, ad, ob, propter, inter, ante, as ad capiendum hostes; ob, vel propter redimendum captivos: inter cenandum; ante damnandum.

And when ye have this English “must” or “ought”, in a reason where it seemeth to be made by this verb oportet, it may be put in the gerund in dum, with this verb est. And then the word that in the English seemeth to be the nominative case shall be put in the dative case, as “I must go hence”, abeundum est mihi.

Supines

The first supine hath the active signification and is put after verbs and participles that betoken moving to a place, as eo cubitum; spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici?

The later supine hath the passive signification, and is put after nouns adjectives and such like, as dignus, indignus, turpis, foedus; proclivis, facilis; odiosus, mirabilis, optimus. And this supine may also be turned into the infinitive mode passive, as it may be {H. ii.} indifferently said in Latin facile factu, or facile fieri, “easy to be done”; turpe dictu, or turpe dici, “unhonest to be spoken”.

The Time

Nouns that betoken part of time be commonly used in the ablative case, as nocte vigilas, luce dormis, but nouns that betoken continual term of time be used commonly in the accusative case, as sexaginta annos natus; hiemem totam stertis.

Space of Place

Nouns that betoken space between place and place, be commonly put in the accusative case, as pedem hinc ne discesseris, “go thou not a foot from this same place”.

A Place

Nouns appellatives or names of great places be put with a preposition if they follow a verb that signifieth “in a place”, “to a place”, “from a place”, or “by a place”, as vivo in Anglia; veni per Galliam in Italiam; proficiscor ex urbe.

“In a place”, or “at a place”, if the place be a proper name of the first declension or second and the singular number, shall be put in the genitive case, as vixit Londini, studuit Oxoniae. And these nouns humi, domi, militiae, belli, be likewise used, as procumbit humi bos; militiae enutritus est; domi bellique otiosi vivitis.

But if the place be the third declension or the plural number it shall be put in the dative or in the ablative case, as militavit Carthagini or Carthagine. Athenis natus est. Likewise we say, ruri or rure educatus est.

“To a place”, if the place be a proper name, it shall be put in the accusative case without a preposition, as eo Romam. Likewise, confero me domum; recipio me rus. {n. p.}

“From a place”, or “by a place”, if the place be a proper name, it shall be put in the ablative case without a preposition, as discessit Londino; profectus est Londino, or per Londinum, Cantabrigiam. Domus and rus be used likewise, as abiit domo, rure reversus est.

Impersonals

A verb impersonal hath no nominative case before him and this word “it”, commonly is his sign.

Interest, refert, and est for interest, require a genitive case of all casual words except mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, and cuia, as interest omnium recte agere; tua refert teipsum nosse.

Certain impersonals require a dative case, as libet, licet, patet, liquet, constat, placet, expedit, prodest, sufficit, vacat, accidit, convenit, contigit, and other like.

Some will have an accusative case only, as delectat, decet, iuvat, oportet, some beside the accusative will have also a genitive, as poenitet, taedet, miseret, miserescit, pudet, piget, as nostri nosmet poeniter; me civitatis taedet; pudet me negligentiae; miseret me tui.

A verb impersonal of the passive voice hath like case as other verbs passives have, as bene fit multis a principe, yet many times the case is not expressed but understand, as maxima vi certatur.

When a deed is signified to be done of many, the verb being a verb neuter, we may well change the verb neuter in to the impersonal in tur, as inignem posita est, fletur, etc.

A Participle

Participles govern such case as the verb that they come of, as fruiturus amicis, consulens tibi, diligendus ab omnibus.

Here note that participles may four manner ways {H. iii.} be changed into nouns: the first is when the voice of a participle is construed with another case then the verb that it cometh of, as appetens vini, “greedy of wine”. The second when it is componed with a preposition, which the verb that it cometh of, cannot be componed withal, as indoctus, innocens. The third when it formeth all the degrees of comparison, as amans, amantior, amantissimus; doctus, doctior, doctissimus. The fourth when it hath no respect nor express difference of time, as scripturus, “about to write”; homo laudatus, “a man laudable”; puer amandus that is amari dignus, “a child worthy to be loved”. And all these are called nouns participial.

Participles when they be changed into nouns require a genitive case, as fugitans litium, indoctus pilae, cupientissimus tui, lactis abundans.

These participial voices perosus, exosus, pertesus, have always the active signification, and govern an accusative case, as exosus sevitiam, “hating cruelty”; vitam pertesus, “weary of the life”.

The Adverb

Adverbs of quantity, time, and place, do require a genitive case, as multum lucri; tunc temporis; ubique gentium.

Certain adverbs will have a dative case like as the nouns that they come of, as venit obviam illi; canit similiter huic.

These datives be used adverbially, tempori, luci, vesperi, as tempori surgendum; vesperi cubandum; luce laborandum.

Certain adverbs will have an accusative case of the prepositions that they come of, as propius urbem, {n. p.} proxime castra.

Where note that prepositions, when they be set without a case, or else do form the degrees of comparison, be changed into adverbs.

The Conjunction

Conjunctions copulatives and disjunctives, and these four quam, nisi, praeterquam, an, couple like cases, as Xenophon et Plato fuere aequales; studui Romae et Athenis, and sometime they be put between diverse cases, as est liber meus et fratris; emi fundum centum nummis et pluris.

Conjunctions copulatives and disjunctives most commonly join like modes and tenses together, as Petrus et Ioannes precabantur et docebant. And sometimes otherwise, as et habetur et referetur a me gratia.

Preposition

Sometime this preposition in is not expressed but understanded as the casual word nevertheless put in the ablative case, as habeo te loco parentis id est in logo.

A verb compound sometime requireth the case of the preposition that he is componed with, as exeo domo; praetereo te insalutatum; adeo petrum.

The Interjection

Certain interjections require a nominative case, as o festus dies hominis. Certain a dative, as hei mihi. Certain an accusative, as heu stirpem invisam. Certain a vocative, as proh sancte Iupiter.

And the same proh will have also an accusative, as proh deum, atque hominum fidem.

The End

Concise treatise of all grammar, which our most cultured and distinguished King ordered to be circulated in that name, so that children throughout England would read nothing else but this one.

London, 1542.

To the schoolmasters and grammar teachers of all England.

Grammar has been deemed by some to be so unimportant and neglectable, that there has not been a lack of those, very studious men, who have mocked its simplicity with this epigram.

A happy grammarian does not exist, nor did he ever,

Nor is anyone with the name of grammarian happy.

But if anyone ever existed who was happy despite this fate,

Then he had abandoned the principles of grammar.

However, Quintilian avenges this most unjust slander by them, where he affirms that this profession of yours holds much more in secret, than offers in appearance; where he claims that it teaches the one and only correct method of speaking, reading, and writing; and that it investigates diligently not only poets, but every kind of writer; and that it passes judgment on any kind of literary endeavour. He equally deems unworthy of tolerance those who mock grammar as if it were an insignificant and limited thing: which, if it had not faithfully laid the foundations for the remaining disciplines, anything you were to build on top of it would easily collapse. Indeed, he says, grammar is necessary for children, enjoyable for elders, a sweet companion {A. ii.} of solitude, and at the same time the sole, among subjects of all kinds, which has more substance than appearance. There is no need, then, for this art to fear the bite of the sycophants, when it has been assigned such a defender. So it be that, although I do not doubt that this faculty of yours, just as proven true by the calculation of this one Fabius, either can nor should displease you, yet I am certain that it will be by far dearer to your entire people and senate when you will have understood that, on the other hand, it is not at all being ignored by our most magnificent and likewise well-learned King. For he, as he is well trained in all disciplines, and particularly in the study of sacred literature, neither despises these grammatical minutiae, nor does he leave them untouched. Moreover, when, thanks to his incomparable wisdom, he sensed how much of the youthful age of children is wasted, and, like in the beginning of the principle of the entire state, in this otherwise most thriving kingdom of his, even here it emerged day by day that there does not exist a rule for educating children in all parts of his territories that is one and straightforward, but manifold and diverse, according to the variation in different tastes: to these, when he had considered a little more deeply that many opportunities emerge every day and everywhere, because a not insignificant portion of young men are forced, given the circumstances, to change their home and school, and that therefore it necessarily happens that, due to the ever-changing teaching methods, even those first rudiments of grammar are approached by different preceptors in different manners, and that in the meantime, due to so many and so often repeated beginnings, nothing progresses, but either regresses crab-like, or at least remains immobile, always in the same footsteps.

When, I say, the most watchful mind of the king had turned again and again to these matters, and to the obstacles and afflictions of such kind in young minds, he easily understood that it was his responsibility, so that he ensured that, to the great inconvenience of his state, some immediate remedy to this was to be employed shortly. For this reason, he decreed that his assignment be delegated to a number of erudite men who had been trained at a grammar school in some way, who would compile a somewhat easy and distinctly concise collection of the rules of grammar, taken from all great writers of this genre, in the shape of a single volume, which he, with this law, ordered to be made public, so that, within the confines of his jurisdiction, you would not read anything other than that one to your disciples. However, this proclaim of the greatest and most just prince should not be understood as if it were an order to read anything written here according to the same standards to which it is written and without pause, and forcing it down the yet tender and nauseated throats of the children uninterruptedly and without discarding anything: as for the rest, it is entirely left to each of you, in order to capture his disciples, whichever method will seem more convenient to him, either to omit at his own discretion {A. iii.}, or to propose to his herd to learn, as long as he does not employ or teach, publicly or privately, anything other than this grammar. Moreover, it may be that you have gathered here, as briefly as possible, a certain summary approach to the entirety of your art: this, however, has been done better, in order for that which concerns the simple doctrine of the art not to appear to be missing to those of you who are looking for it, rather than for young and tender minds to appear to be overcome by all these things immediately upon their first attack. Wherefore, if you will have consulted this short piece of writing fairly and well, according to the nature of your profession, and if you will have taken care to explicate it accurately, with as much diligence as you can, to that immature flock, which in its entirety depends on your assistance, not only will you answer egregiously to the expectation of the most excellent prince, but you will also seem to have truly fulfilled your duty and to be working in order for this little treatise to appear, day by day, still more immaculate, and, if the work will be seen, even more authoritative.

Farewell.

To the reader.

Εγϰὼμιον τοῦ βασιλέοσ

Then there shall come the good fortune, then all

The prosperity, said the great Plato:

When knowledge meets a willing king,

Or when he who rules is inclined to wisdom.

If you believe that Plato said so there,

Anglia, why do you waste time being pleased with yourself?

Such a king is near you, as our ancestors have

Never seen, nor will our descendants be able to see.

Although I am omitting his physical gifts, with which he appears

Completely blessed, he soars immeasurably with his intellect.

Which kind of inclination is there, or which talents will you mention,

That that divine breast does not possess?

And although he is richly cultured in human inventions,

Yet the sacred law of Christ holds the first place.

Christ resides in his voice, the pious tongue speaks of Christ,

And Christ also occupies the heart of his king.

Whatever he does, speaks, thinks, everything is Christ.

Everywhere Christ directs his heart, mind, soul.

Hence it is so, that the piety and the glory of Christ,

As well as the love for the true religion, are our concern.

Ambiguity is henceforth banned, the Roman tyranny dies,

And shadowy heresy seeks the usual shelters.

Hence honest devotion finally raises its head, and

Shallow faith is crushed under its feet. {n. p.}

The impostor is eradicated, the spy everywhere pales,

The traitor himself falls into his own trap.

Human and divine laws are henceforth valid, the great passion

Of the ancestral piety possesses all, and nothing but sacred things is appreciated.

Hence both the existing laws and the State flourish.

Hence quiet, hence peace, hence all good things spread.

Then the arts flourish, the good doctrine is practiced.

A golden age emerges under this King.

And with the protection of this King, as if it were a good premonition,

This book is now brought to life to you.

And if you, British youth, do not accept it with a grateful spirit,

Then you are neither pious, nor grateful, nor appreciative of the work.

Despite its small size, this pamphlet brings great resources,

Which can however be acquired by everyone at a small price.

And although you may examine a thousand works by others,

You would not find anything clearer and more useful.

Thus may you, boy, remembering the one thanks to whom you reap so many advantages,

Always and most greatly praise such an erudite king.

Therefore, pray that he may live long, happy, and propitiously:

Then may he be deserving of ascending the heavenly house.

Κυριε σὣσον τὁν βασιλὲα {n. p.}

The most glaring mistakes

Folio	Page	Line	Read or delete
2	2	15	tn
ibidem		last	ambio
3	1	3	septentriones
5	1	3	origines
7	1	27	compellandis
9	1	19	inflexionis
10	2	20	delete histrix
11	2	8	ǐri
ibidem		10	presbyter
14	1	16	anomalia
17	2	1	anus
19	2	4	menses profluvium
20	1	28	fructu ac
21	1	last	piissimus
ibidem	2	1	ipsissimus
22	2	3	primitivam
23	1	23	tertiae
26	2	19	factane
ibidem		30	gratias
ibidem		31	sanatur
27	1	30	huius
28	1	4	significant
31	1	last	delete et sic
ibidem	2	28	alitumque
33	2	21	dabitur quem
34	2	2	inquio
35	1	25	coniugantur
36	2	10	nexus
37	2	24	doctissimus quisque {n. p.}
Folio	Page	Line	Read or delete
40	1	penult.	pedetentim
48	2	4	ingenui
49	2	2	significat
50	1	26	plenae
52	1	6	adsimules
61	2	29	numerumque referre
62	2	12	calidus
63	1	12	consedimus
66	2	11	coactae
67	1	29	laeserunt
ibidem		last	studes
76	1	16	inis

In that very place, soon after the last line you must add

	amo		porro
	virgo		legendo, gerundium.

And you must erase those same voices in the following page, lines seven and eight. {n. p.}

Of Grammar and Its Parts

Grammar is the art of writing and speaking properly.

Grammar has four parts.

	orthography		syntax
	etymology		prosody

{n. p.}

Of Orthography

Orthography is the method for writing correctly, by which we are taught how and by which letters every word must be formed, as lectio, not lexio, from ὀρθός “correct”, and γραϕϰ “writing”.

Of Letters

Among twenty-two letters, there are five vowels

	a		o
	e		u
	i		and Greek y

Among them, different letters join together in compounds of five diphthongs

ae		musae
au		audio
oe	as	coelum
ei		hei
eu		euge

The remaining letters are called consonants, nine of which are mute {B}

	b		k
	c		p
	d		q
	f		t
	g

While seven are semivowels

	l		s
	m		x
	n		z
	r

Among them

l
m		are liquid
n
r

However, s is a letter whose rule is particular: sometimes it becomes liquid as well.

X, z and i in the middle of two vowels are likewise double consonants.

I and u can also be added to consonants when they are put before themselves or before other vowels in the same syllable, as

	voluntas		Iuno
	vultus		Iovis

K, y, and z are never combined in Latin speech.

H is not a letter, but a sign of aspiration. Moreover, it is put before all the vowels, as

	hamus		homo
	hebenus		humus
	hiatus		hymnus

Actually, not before any consonant. Therefore, we pronounce in this manner

	hiulcus		trisyllable		Hieronymus		pentasyllable
	Hiacchus				Hieremias

And yet in Latin speech sometimes h is put after c, as {n. p.}

	charus
	pulcher

Letters are represented in two ways, of course with capital or small characters: capital letters do begin the sentences and proper names, as

	Deum time		Henricus
	Regem honora		Anglia

The way in which diphthongs are written must be carefully observed: how, for instance, they can be both composed and signed,

as		musæ		or		musę
		præsunt				praęsunt

When only few or single capital letters are written, sometimes they indicate a forename, sometimes a number, as

A.	Aulus	P.C.	Patres conscripti
C.	Caius	Q.	Quintus, Quaestor, Quirites
D.	Decius	R.P.	Respublica
G.	Gaius	Sp.	Spurius
L.	Lucius	Sex.	Sextus
M.	Marcus	T.	Titus
P.	Publius	T.C.	Tua Clementia and
P.R.	Populus Romanus		infinite nouns of this kind.

	And in the case of numbers
I.		unum
V.		quinque
IX.		novem
X.		decem
XL.		quadraginta
L.	means	quinquaginta
XC.		nonaginta
C.		centum
D.		quingenta
M.		mille

{B. ii.}

Of the Differences between Syllables

To learn how to write correctly it is first of all necessary to distinguish and connect syllables properly while writing. In plain words, bd is attached to the following vowel, as

	a – bdomen
	a – bdera

Indeed, this is the rule which must be followed

ct, as	do – ctus	gm	a – gmen
	san – ctus	gn, as	i – gnis
ps, as	scri – psi		ve – ster
	sum – psi	st, as	magi – ster
sc, as	pi – scis		an – xius
	di – sco	x, as	di – xi
tn, as	e – tna and similar

Among m and n there must not be a p. Therefore, it is wrongly represented

sompnus		instead of		somnus
columpna				columna

After x an s must not be written, as

excribo		and not		exscribo
exolvo				exsolvo

In compounds with a preposition, both a sensitive hearing and euphonies must be pleased, as

occurro		obcurro
officio	better than	obficio
aufero		abfero and conversely
abstineo		austineo
obtineo	but not	ottineo
obrepo		orrepo

Furthermore, because of this, consonants are sometimes inserted in compounds too, as

	redamo		ambigo
	redeo		ambeo

Of Orthoepy

Orthoepy is similar to Orthography. It is the correct method for properly speaking, from ὀρθός, correct, and ἔποϛ, word.

This must be especially regarded, so that teachers can mould and refine the tender and babbling mouths of children, and also do not hasten the conversation into a continuous volubility of tongue, so that, unless voice is missing, they never fall short in eloquence or conversely fall silent with respect to any single sound with a long breathing pause, belching, laughter, sobbing, hawking, or cough, which inappropriately interrupt the course of speech.

Besides, children must be first of all refrained from those defects which are almost seen to be proper of our population.

They are of this kind

	iotacism		traulism
	lambdacism		plateasm
	ischnotes		and similar

It is said to be iotacism when the letter i has got a sound which is too rich, and drawls more than it is appropriate. This defect is produced especially by our compatriots of Northern England.

Lambdacism is when someone pronounces an l with an exceedingly strenuous sound, as

	ellucet	instead of		lucet
	sallavus			salvus

Another defect is thrust by our compatriots, clearly because they pronounce these letters more thickly than what is proper, so

	multus		muultus
instead of	mollis	it is heard	moollis
	falsus		faalsus

Ischnotes is a certain slenderness of speaking, every time as we pronounce some syllables in a slenderer and simpler way than the natural one, so that {B. iii.}

	nunc		nync
instead of	tunc	we pronounce	tync
	aliquis		eliquis
	alius		elius

Traulism is a certain hesitance and stammering of pronunciation, when the same syllable is too often repeated at the same time, as

	cacacanit	instead of		canit
	Tututullius			Tullius

Fabius believes that error, which is just as dangerous as it is bad, should be remedied in the following way, i.e. – if it were asked by the pupils – for the children to pronounce as quickly as possible nouns and verses of unnatural difficulty made of many, interconcatenated and very harsh syllables, all joined and equally difficult, as

Arx, tridens, rostris, sphinx, prester, torrida seps, strix.

Postquam discordia tetra,

Belli ferratos postes, portasque refregit.

Plateasm is when we struggle for a deeper and more mature voice to speak, so that

	montes		muntes
instead of	fontes	we exasperate	funtes
	pontes		puntes	and also
	ergo		argo
instead of	sperma	we exasperate	sparma
	perago		parago

And, in other respects among our compatriots, there are also those who instead of v pronounce f, and on the contrary f instead of v, as

folo		volo
fis		vis
folui	instead of	volui
felle		velle. And conversely
vero		fero
vers	instead of	fers
verre		ferre

{n. p.}

When s is in between two intermediate vowels, some people produce an impure sound:

	laesus		lezus
instead of	visus	they pronounce	vizus
	risus		rizus

H at the beginning of utterance is milder, while it is preferred to deliver a harder pronunciation when h is in the middle. Therefore, wrongly,

	homo		omo
instead of	hamus		amus
	humus		umus
	Christus		Cristus
instead of	chrisma	we exasperate	crisma
	chremes		cremes
	thus		tus
instead of	diphthongus		diptongus
	sphaera		spaera

Our compatriots make another shameful mistake when they pronounce t and d just as if they were aspirated, as

amath		amat
caputh	instead of	caput
aputh		apud

But this kind of defects are almost countless in anyone who aspires to be well lettered, and we bequeath to the diligence of preceptors to correct them.

Of the Punctuation of Sentences

Not a scant part of orthography seems to consist of the proper separation of sentences. Accordingly, it will not be redundant to remark a few things on the distinction of clauses. Therefore, points or marks, of which the learned make use in writing, are called by our countrymen {n. p.}

minor punctuation		comma
middle separation	in Greek	colon
full and perfect separation		period

Minor punctuation or comma is the mark of silence, through which the limit of the sentence is thus suspended, but with the persistence of the meaning, so that anything that follows could immediately advance, and it is written with a point tailed beneath, as

Utendum est aetate, cito pede praeterit aetas:

Nec bona tam sequitur, quam bona prima fuit.

Likewise, the single parts of the sentence are separated through this mark, as

Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes

Graeculus esuriens in caelum, iusseris, ibit.

Middle separation or colon is when what has already been said of the sentence generally remains, and it is a perfect part of the sentence, and two points must be observed, as quemadmodum horologii umbram progressam sentimus, progredientem non cernimus, et fruticem aut herbam crevisse apparet, crescere autem nulli cernitur: ita et ingeniorum profectus, quoniam minutis constat auctibus, ex intervallo sentitur.

Full separation, which is also called period, is put after complete sentences, and it is also marked by a simple full stop, as

Dic mihi musa virum captae post tempora Troiae:

Qui mores hominum multorum vidit et urbes.

Among these, we usually include

	brackets
	question mark

Brackets are used when a sentence that is included between two small half-moons is removed and the utterance remains nevertheless complete, as

Princeps (quia bella miniantur hostes) militibus urbes praemunit et armis.

The question mark is marked by two points, but the upper one is tailed, as

Et quae tanta fuit Romam tibi causa videndi? {n. p.}

Of Etymology

Etymology deals first of all with the investigation into the origins of words, as if caelebs was almost said caelestem vitam agens, if lepus almost levipes. But etymology, since we are now discussing it, is the method to learn the differences between cases, as fortis, fortiter, lego, legit. Cicero instead calls etymology veriloquium. Moreover, it is composed of ἔτυμοσ “right”, et λόγοσ “speech”.

Of the Parts of Speech

There are eight parts of speech

	noun		adverb
	pronoun		conjunction
	verb		preposition
	participle		interjection

Of Nouns

A noun is that part of speech which means a thing, without any difference between time or person.

A noun is called in two ways		substantive
		adjective

A substantive is that which does not require anything to be added to express its meaning.

But a substantive is twofold		appellative
		proper

An appellative is that which indicates a thing common to many people, as {C}

	homo		iustitia
	lapis		bonitas

A proper is that which means a thing proper to one individual, as

	Iesus		Londinum
	Maria		Thamesis

Proper names are of three kinds. First name, which is put in front of a distinguishing position, or due to an ancient use, as

	Lucius		Aulus
	Publius		Marcus

Name, which is what is proper to every single person, as

	Petrus		Cato
	Paulus		Tullius

Surname, which is established from consanguinity, as

	Gracchus		Scipio
	Fabius		Cicero

or from the relation to some places, as	Africanus
or from the relation to some places, as	Macedonicus
	Germanicus

An adjective requires to be joined to a substantive in the speech, as

	piger		candidus
	alacris		clemens

An adjective is twofold

	common
	proper

It is common when it indicates a disposition common to many people, as

	bonus		solers
	malus		satur

It is proper when it indicates a disposition peculiar and indivisible from someone, as

	Gradivus, proper noun for Mars
	Quirinus, proper noun for Romulus

{n. p.}

Of the Variation of Nouns

Nouns have seven variations

	type		gender
	figure		declension
	number		comparison
	case

Of Type

The type of a noun is twofold

	primitive, which does not derive from a different source
	derivative, which is formed from a different source

Primitives include these which follow, and suchlike.

Certainly, the collective noun, when a singular number indicates a great number, as

	concio		plebs
	caetus		turba

The onomatopoeic noun, which is adapted from a sound, as

	sibilus		stridor
	tintinnabulum		clangor

Interrogative nouns, as

	quis		quantus
	uter		quot
	qualis		numquis

Which sometimes change in concordance with the infinite, sometimes with the relative.

Correlative nouns, which answer to an interrogative, as

	talis
	tantus
	tot

Numeral, to whom these qualities are related.

Cardinal, from which other numbers descend as from a source, as

	unus		tres
	duo		quatuor

Ordinal, as

	primus		tertius
	secundus		quartus

{C. ii.}

Distributive, as

Partitive, which means either many things or singularity, as

	quisque		uterque
	unusquisque		neuter

Or one among many, as

Universal, as

	omins		nullus
	cunctus		nemo

Particular, as

	aliquis		ullus
	quisquam		quidam

A derivative also has subordinate qualities.

Certainly verbal, as

	lectio		auditus
	litura		aratrum

Patronymic, as

	Eboracensis		Oxoniensis
	Londinensis		Etonensis

Related to lineage, as

	Graecus		Hebraeus
	Latinus		Anglus

Patronymic nouns which come from both a father or from a different person from the family, as

	Aeacides, son or grandson of Aeacus
	Nerine, daughter or granddaughter of Nereus
	Latoides, son of Latona
	Menelais, wife of Menelaus

Diminutive, as

	regulus		maiusculus
	popellus		minusculus

Possessive, as

	herilis		regius
	servilis		paternus

Material, as

	faginus		gemmeus
	lapideus		aureus

Local, as

	hortensis		marinus
	agrestis		montanus

{n. p.}

Adverbial, as

	hesternus		crastinus
	hodiernus		clandestinus

Participial, as

	amandus
	docendus

And those ending in lis, as

Of Figure

Figures can be simple, as iustus, or compound, as iniustus. There are some which increase and derive from a compound word, as irreparabilis.

Of Number

There are two numbers.

Singular, relating to one, as pater.

Plural, relating to many, as patres.

Of Case

There are six cases.

Nominative, which is also called rectus, straight, is the first voice, with which we call a certain thing.

Genitive, which means whose such a thing could be. And also, it is usually called patrius casus, the paternal case, gignendi casus the generative case, or interrogandi casus, the asking case.

Dative, also called dandi casus, the giving case, by which we attribute some things to someone. Under this word we also include the eighth case, as it clamor caelo, that is in caelum.

Accusative – which can be called both incusativus, accusing, or causativus, causative– follows the verb, as amo patrem.

Vocative, which is also called salutatorium, the greeting case, is employed to call or to address people.

Ablative, by which we indicate that something is obtained by someone. We call this sextus, the sixth, and latinus, the Latin case, because it is truly peculiar of the Latins. {C. iii.}

Of Gender

Gender is the difference between the sexes, and there are seven genders

	masculine, whose mark is hic
	feminine, haec
	neuter, hoc
	common, hic and haec
	common of three, hic, haec, and hoc
	doubtful, hic or haec
	epicene or indiscriminate, when under one single word we can include both sexes and genders, as hic anser, haec aquila.

While in order to properly understand the gender of nouns, you must assimilate the following rules with utmost diligence: and for this you must acknowledge William Lily.

General Rules of the Proper Nouns

Proper nouns which are attributed to men are called masculine, as are those of the gods Mars, Bacchus, Apollo. Of the men, as Cato, Vergilius. Of the rivers, as Tybris, Orontes. Of the months, as October. Of the winds, as Libs, Notus, Auster.

Proper nouns concerning female kind

Are attributed to feminine gender: whether they be nouns of

goddesses, as Iuno, Venus. Of women, as Anna, Philotis.

Of cities, as Elis, Opus. Of countries, as Graecia, Persis.

Likewise, the names of islands, as Creta, Britannia, Cyprus.

Nevertheless, some cities must be removed, such as

Mascula, Sulmo, Agragas. Some are neuter, as Argos,

Tybur, Praeneste, and the people of Anxio, for which both are allowed. {n. p.}

General Rules of the Appellatives

Appellatives of the trees will be feminine, as alnus,

Cupressus, cedrus. Spinus is masculine, oleaster is masculine.

And siler, suber, thus, robur, and acer, are neuter.

Epicene

Also are of birds, as passer, hirundo. Of wild beasts,

As tygris, vulpes, and of fish, as ostrea, coetus.

We call epicene a word which tells itself its own suitable gender.

Nevertheless, from all that we said before, it must be noticed

That all those that end in um, either Greek or Latin,

Are of the neuter gender. Thus, they are invariable nouns.

But now, for what concerns the remaining nouns which are called appellatives,

Or which behave just like appellatives, I will formulate a rule,

For the gender of these nouns can be distinguished according to the genitive,

As the three special rules below will point out.

First Special Rule

A noun which does not originate from the genitive, as caro carnis,

Capra caprae, nubes nubis, is of the feminine gender.

Since our Lily teaches how to distinguish the gender of appellative nouns from the genitive, pupils must be warned at this point: this first rule is that not all appellative nouns originate from the genitive.

Their genders are in all respects of the first and fourth inflections, and also of the second, besides a certain few which will be discovered below, in the exceptions to the third rule. The great part of the third declension nouns which are of this kind are likewise related to this class {n. p.}

Masculine

Many things of men are called masculine with a,

As scriba, assecla, scurra, and rabula, lixa, lanista,

Greek masculine nouns follow the first declension

Ending in as, and in es, and those derived from what is made in a,

As satrapas satrapa, athletes athleta. Likewise

verres, natalis, aqualis are masculine, born from assis,

as centussis. You should add lienis, and orbis,

Callis, caulis, follis, collis, mensis, and ensis,

Fustis, funis, panis, penis, crinis, and ignis,

Cassis, fascis, torris, sentis, piscis, and unguis,

And vermis, vectis, postis, societur, and axis.

Masculine nouns in er, as venter. In os, or us, as logos, annus.

Nouns of the feminine gender are mater, humus, domus, alvus,

And colus, and of the fourth, as a fruit ficus, and acus,

Porticus, and tribus, socrus, nurus, and manus, idus,

Here anus must be added, here mystica vannus Iacchi.

Change the os ending of these words into us to turn it to Greek papyrus,

Antidotus, costus, diphthongus, byssus, abyssus,

Crystallus, synodus, saphirus, eremus, and arctus

With many others, which now it would be tedious to write in detail.

Neuter

Neuter nouns in e when they make is, as mare, rete.

And those which result in on, or in um, as barbiton, ovum.

The gender of hippomanes is neuter, and neuter cacoethes,

And virus, pelagus: neuter modo, but masculine for modo vulgus. {n. p.}

Doubtful

Nouns of doubtful gender are talpa and dama, canalis,

Halcyonis, finis, clunis, restis, penus, amnis,

Pampinus and corbis, linter, torquis, specus, anguis.

The fruit ficus which gives fici, and phaselus,

Lecythus, and atomus, grossus, pharus, and paradisus.

Common

Nouns compound from a verb ending in a are of the common of the two gender,

Graiugena from gigno, agricola from colo, this advena shows to be

From venio, you can add senex, auriga, and verna, sodalis,

Vates, extorris, patruelis, and per duellis,

Affinis, iuvenis, testis, civis, canis, hostis.

Second Special Rule

If the penultimate syllable of the genitive case makes an

acute sound, just as these, pietas pietatis,

Virtus virtutis, the noun is of the feminine gender.

Here observe that those which sharpen the penultimate syllable originate from the genitive, and all are of the fifth inflection, except fides. Similarly, all monosyllabic nouns, except vis. All the remaining are of the third declension, thus all inflect

	c		halec, halecis
			delphin	nis
	n		titan
in		as	infans	antis
	ans		quadrans
	ens		continens	entis
			triens
	uns		decuns, decuntis

{D}

Greek nouns in er which are written in ir, as

	crater		êris
	character

Latin nouns in er pertain to the third rule, whereby feminine is not properly placed in in this group.

	inx		Syrinx, Syringis
	anx		phalanx, phalangis
				deunx	uncis
In	unx	as		septunx
				effrons	ontis
	ons			bifrons
				cohors	ortis
	ors			consors

Except Latin nouns in o, which have ônis and ênis in the genitive,

	lectio	ônis
as	ligo
	anio	ênis

Except a few gentiles, which belong to the third rule,

	Macedo
	Brito
as	Saxo	ǒnis
	Vangio
	Lingo

Those in al are neuter, as

	vectigal		âlis	the others in l follow the third rule.
	animal

In en, which have ênis in genitive, as

	lien		ênis	the others follow the third rule.
	Siren

In Greek ων, which maintain ω in the genitive, as

	damon		ωnis
	Ladon

Certain vary, as {n. p.}

Orion
Edon	ônis, ǒnis	the others follow the third rule.
Egeon

In ar, as

			iubar
laquear			nectar	ǎris
exemplar	âris	except	arar
calcar			hepar	hepǎtis

In the Latin or, as

	timor	ôris
	soror
	arbor
	marmor		rhetor
except	aequor	ǒris and some Greek nouns	Hector	ǒris
	ador		Nestor
	memor

In the Latin as, as

maiestas	âtis.		Anas, Anǎtis
lenitas		except	and certain Greek nouns
			lampas
			monas	ǎdis

In es, as

quies		haeres	êdis
magnes	êtis	merces
locuples		meridies	meridiêi

And Greek nouns, whose genitive ends in êtis, as

	lebes		êtis	the others follow the third rule.
	tapes

Nouns in is, which make îtis in the genitive, are gentiles, as

Samnis	îtis	Salamis	înis
Quiris		Trachis
Psophis	îdis	semis essis
Crenis

The others follow the third rule. {D. ii.}

In os, as

	custos	ôdis	except	compos	ǒtis
	rhinoceros	ôtis		impos

In us, which make ûtis, ûdis, and ûris in the genitive, as

	salus, ûtis
	palus, ûdis	except pecus pecǔdis
	tellus, ûris

In ax, as

limax		abax
fornax		smilax
thorax	âcis. Except	dropax	ǎcis
bibax		storax
nugax		styrax

And certain patronymics, as

Syphax both varies âcis or ǎcis.

In ex, as		vervex, vervêcis		compounds from lex,
		vibex, vibîcis		exlex, exlêgis.

The others follow the third rule.

	lodix		and words in trix, as
	histrix			victrix	îcis
In ix, as	phaenix	îcis		nutrix
	pernix			the others follow the third rule.
	felix

In yx, as

	bombyx, bombŷcis
	Yet Bebryx varies in Bebrŷcis, Bebry̌cis. The others follow the third rule.

In ox, as

	celox
	velox		ôcis	except Cappadox, Cappadǒcis

In ux, as Pollux, Pollûcis. The others follow the third rule.

In Greek s, after p, as

	hydrops	ôpis	conops	ôpis
	Cyclops		cercops

The others follow the third rule. {n. p.}

Masculine

Certain monosyllabic nouns are said to be masculine,

Sal, sol, ren, and splen, car, ser, vir, vas vadis, as, mas,

Bes, cres, pres, and pes, glis gliris, they have the genitive,

Mos, flos, ros, and tros, mus, dens, mons, pons, and also fons,

Seps instead of serpente, gryps, Thrax, rex, grex gregis, and Phryx.

Polysyllables in n are also masculine, as Acarnan,

Lichen, and delphin. And in o those marking concrete nouns,

As leo, curculio, so senio, ternio, sermo.

Masculine in er, or, and os, like crater, conditor, heros,

So torrens, nefrens, oriens, with plurals in dens,

Like bidens, when it is found before a tool.

You can add gigas, elephas, adamas, and Garamas, and tapes,

And lebes, cures, magnes, and a single noun as meridies,

A noun of the fifth, and those which are compound from nothing,

As dodrans, semis. We must add to the masculine Samnis,

Hydrops, nycticorax, thorax, and the masculine also includes vervex,

Phoenix, and bombyx, instead of vermiculo. However, some of these nouns

Are of the feminine gender, siren, mulier, soror, uxor.

Neuter

The neuter gender includes both these monosyllabic nouns mel, sel,

Lac, far, ver, cor, aes, vas vasis, os ossis and oris,

Rus, thus, ius, crus, pus. And polysyllables in al, and in ar,

As capital, laquear. Halec is neuter and feminine.

Doubtful

These nouns are of the doubtful gender, python, scrobis, serpens, bubo, rudens, grus,

Perdix, linx, limax, stirps for trunco, pedis and calx,

You can add dies, which is masculine only in the plural number.

Common

Common nouns inlcude parens, autor, infans, adolescens,

Dux, illex, haeres, exlex, those made from fronte,

As bifrons, custos, bos, fur, sus, and sacerdos. {D. iii.}

Third and Last Special Rule

If the penultimate syllable of the genitive case

Is short, as sanguis, genitive sanguinis, the originated nouns are masculine.

These nouns have the stress on the penultimate syllable of the genitive. In a few cases their gender is of the second inflexion, as one may see

socer

gener

ěri

levir

puer

compounds from vir

Triumvir

ǐri

adulter

Decemvir

presbyter, ecclesiastic voice

centumvir

armiger

from fero

caducifer

ěri

from gero

claudiger

ěri

Lucifer

and some

tener

ěri

adjectives

satur

ǔri

	a		poema	ǎtis
			dogma
in	yr		martyr	marty̌ris
	ur	as	augur	ǔris
			murmur
	t		caput	pitis
			occiput

And also a few in

o	imago		or	arbor	ǒris
	ordo	inis		Aeginor
l	Hannibal		as	chilias	chiliâdis
	consul	lis		anas	anâtis
so	mugil
	tibicen		es	fomes	itis
in en	carmen	inis		limes
	canon		in is	lapis	idis
on	daemon	onis		pollis	inis

{n. p.}

iubar

ǎris

puer

ěri

nectar

anser

ěris

s goes before

princeps

principis

compos

ǒtis

consonants

hiems

hiěmis

impos

in us as

corpus

ǒris

abax

ǎcis

vellus

ěris

storax

index

icis

fornix

icis

vindex

calix

precox

ǒcis

coniux

ǔgis

Cappadox

redux

ǔcis

Feminine

Hyperdisyllabic nouns in do, which make dinis,

And in go, which make ginis in the genitive, are of the feminine gender.

For you should make dulcedo in dulcedinis, and

Compago shows to be compaginis. You must add virgo,

Grando, fides, compes, teges, and seges, arbor, and hiems,

thus bacchar, sindon, Gorgon, icon, and Amazon.

Greek nouns ending in as or in is, as lampas, iaspis,

Cassis, cuspis, a single voice in us makes pecus in pecudis.

These nouns forfex, pellex, carex, and likewise suppellex,

Appendix, histrix, coxendix, and you must add filix.

Neuter

The neuter gender, designating inanimate things, include

Nouns in a, as problema, en as omen, ar as iubar, as dans,

as iecur, us as onus, put as occiput. However, among these

Pecten, furfur are masculine. Neuter nouns include cadaver,

Verber, iter, suber, fungo instead of tuber, and uber,

Gingiber, and laser, cicer, and piper, and papaver,

And siser, and siler. To the neuter gender belong aequor, marmor, and ador, {n. p.}

And pecus, when it makes pecoris in the genitive.

Doubtful

Cardo, margo, cinis, obex, pulvis, adeps, forceps,

pumex, ramex, anas, imbrex are of the doubtful gender.

You must add culix, natrix, and onyx with compounds, and silex,

Although this would better be called for a masculine use.

Common

The common gender includes these, vigil, pugil, exul,

Praesul, homo, nemo, martyr, Ligur, augur, and Archas,

Antistes, miles, pedes, interpres, comes, hospes,

thus ales, praeses, princeps, auceps, eques, obses,

And many other nouns coming from verbs,

As coniux, index, vindex, opifex, and aruspex.

General rule of the adjectives

When adjectives have just one voice,

As felix, audax, and all gender is under one voice.

If the voice falls under a double voice, just as omnis and omne,

The former voice of the two is common, the latter voice is neuter.

But if there are three varying voices, as sacer, sacra, sacrum,

The first voice is masculine, the second feminine, the third is neuter.

But there are some adjectives which you would nearly call substantives because of their inflexion,

Yet they are considered as adjectives because of their nature and use,

Such are pauper, puber, with degener, uber,

And dives, locuples, sospes, comes, and superstes,

With some few others which a proper study will teach you.

These adjectives are glad to take for themselves a certain particular inflexion,

Campester, volucer, celiber, celer, and saluber,

You can add pedester, equester, and acer, add paluster,

And alacer silvester. But you will have to vary these as follows:

Hic celer, haec celeris, neuter hoc celere. Or otherwise, in this way:

Hic and haec celeris, on the contrary hoc celere is neuter.

It must be observed that adjectives are those words lacking gender:

This and other things will be discussed elsewhere. {n. p.}

Of Declensions

Declensions are the variations of words by case. There are five declensions.

First Declension

The first declension includes four terminations

a		mensa
as	as	Aeneas
es		Anchises
e		Penelope

Furthermore, Greek nouns include all those which end in

as		Thomas
es	as	Ioannes
e		Phebe

And there are also some Hebrew nouns in am, as

	Adam, Adae
	Abraham, Abrahae

Which nevertheless could be better rendered in the Latin form, and inflected in this manner:

	Adamus, Adami
	Abrahamus, Abrahami

As makes the accusative in an, as

	Aeneas		the vocative is in a, as		Aeneas
	Aenean				Aenea

Es obtains en in the accusative, as

	Anchises		the vocative and ablative in e or a, as		Anchise, or
	Anchisen				Anchisa

E makes the genitive in es, the dative in e, the accusative in en, the vocative and the ablative in e, as

	Penelope		Penelopen
	Penelopes		Penelope
	Penelope		Penelope

Familias in the genitive of Latin nouns is sometimes found {E} to imitate Greek nouns, as

	pater familias
	filius familias etc.

The same which our forefathers observed in many other nouns.

Ennius, dux ipse vias.

Livius Andronicus, Mercurius, cumque eo filius Latonas.

Thus Nevius, filii terras, pro terrae.

Vergil, nec auras, nec sonitus memor.

You will leave aulai and pictai, and other nouns of this kind, to the ancients.

The genitive plural sometimes admits a syncope, as

	Aneadûm		instead of		Aeneadarum
	Graiugenûm				Graiugenarum

These nouns form plural datives and ablatives in abus.

	dea			Equa
	mula			liberta. These nouns end in is and in abus as well.
	filia
	nata

Second Declension

The terminations of the second declension are

er		Aper
ir		Vir
ur	as	satur
us		dominus
um		templum

And of Greek nouns in

Os		Delos
On	as	Ilion
Eus		Orpheus

Attic nouns in os make the genitive in o, the accusative in on, as

Androgeos		accusative Androgeon
Androgeo

Some Greek nouns contracted in us make the vocative in u, as {n. p.}

	Panthus			Panthu
	Oedipus			Oedipu

You must also notice that some Latin nouns make the singular vocative both in us and in e, as

Nouns in eus make the genitive both in ei or eos, the dative in ei, the accusative in ea, the vocative in eu, as

Finally, these syncopations must be noticed

	deûm		instead of		Deorum
	virûm				virorum

Likewise, irregular nouns ambobus and duobus, and also ambo and duo: poets use these two voices also in the accusative masculine.

Vergil, si duo praeterea tales idea tulisset terra viros.

Horace, ne vos titillet gloria, iureiurando obstringam ambo.

Third Declension

The third declension is completely different: here I will briefly mention only its more difficult cases.

Some accusatives are only declined in um, as

vim		maguderim
ravim		amussim
tussim		Charibdim
sitim
	and also the accusative of some rivers as
	Tibrim
	Ararim

{E. ii.}

Some nouns decline the accusative in im and in em, as

	buris		turris
	pelvis		restis
	clavis		febris
	securis		navis
	puppis		bipennis
	torquis		aqualis

The ablative regularly ends in e, as

	pectus		Ablative		pectore
	salus				salute

Proper nouns are similar to adjectives, and make the ablative in e

	felice		Martiale
	clemente		Iuvenale etc.

But the neuter nouns ending in al, ar, and e for the most part make the ablative in i, as

vectigal		Vectigali
calcar	ablative	Calcari
mare		Mari

The ablative rete is from the nominative retis, and not from the nominative rete.

Par with its compounds has both e and i, as

	par		ablative		pare		or ri
	compar				compare

Yet these nouns maintain e

	far		Nectar
	hepar		gausape
	iubar		praesepe, and these proper names
	Soracte
	Praeneste
	Reate

The names of holidays that are only plural sometimes make the genitive in orum, as

	Agonalia		genitive		Agonaliorum
	Vinalia				Vinaliorum

{n. p.}

Sometimes also in ium, as

	Floralia		genitive		Floralium
	Feralia				Feralium

But sometimes also in orum or ium, as

	Parentalia		genitive		Parentaliorum		or ium
	Saturnalia				Saturnaliorum

But datives and ablatives in bus, as

	Saturnalibus
	Bacchanalibus

Except from Quinquatria which forms its cases according to the second declension.

The nouns of months in er and is make the ablative only in i, as

September		ablative		Septembri
Aprilis				Aprili

Nouns whose accusative only ends in im, has its ablative end in i, as

sitim		ablative		siti
tussim				tussi

Adjectives whose nominative ends in is or or, make e in the neuter, and put the ablative only in i, as

fortis		Forti
mollis	ablative	Molli
dulcis		dulci	thus
acer
acris	ablative	acri
acre

Although poets are sometimes allowed to use e instead of i in their verses.

Other adjectives end both in e and in i, as

	capax		ablative		capace	or ci
	duplex				duplice
		pauper			sospes
except		degener			hospes
		uber		which make the ablative only in e

{n. p.}

Comparatives also make the ablative in two ways, as

Melior		ablative		meliore		or ri
Doctior				doctiore

And similarly some substantives, as

Ignis		igne
amnis		amne
anguis		angue
suppellex	ablative	supellectile	or i
unguis		ungue
vectis		vecte

However civis rarely makes	ablative in		cive or civi.
Arpinas rarely makes			Arpinate or Arpinati

And in similar ways when it comes to other gentiles of this kind. Finally, the following nouns, whose accusative ends in em and im, form the ablative in the same way, as

	puppis		ablative		puppe		or i
	navis				nave

And in similar way, verbal nouns in trix, as

	victrix		ablative		victrice		or ci
	altrix				altrice

Neuter nouns whose ablative singular only ends in i, or in e and i, have the nominative plural in ia, as

	molli		mollia
	duplice or duplici		duplicia. Except
	Ubera
	plura or pluria
	aplustra or aplustria. And comparatives, as
	meliora		doctiora
	fortiora		priora

From ablatives which only end in i, or both in e and i, the genitive plural is made in ium, as

	Utili		utilium
	puppe or puppi		puppium.

{n. p.}

Except comparatives, as

	maiorum
	meliorum. Also except these:
	supplicum		Veterum
	complicum		Memorum
	strigilum		Pugilum
	artificum		Inopum
	vigilum

But plus forms plurium. There are some nouns which sometimes admit a syncope, these are

	sapientum		instead of		Sapientium
	serpentum				Serpentium

When the nominative singular cases end with two consonants, the plural genitive ends in ium, as

pars		partium
urbs		urbium
falx	genitive	falcium
glans		glandium
trabs		trabium
merx		mercium	Except
hyemum		forcipum
principum		inopum
participum		caelibum
munificum

When there is an equal number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular, the genitive plural ends in ium, as

collis			Collium
mensis	is	genitive	Mensium
auris			aurium	You can add these
litium			salium
ditium			manium
vitium			penatium

Nevertheless, these ones make an exception {n. p.}

canum			iuvenum
panum			Opum
vatum			apum	According to these
	as, makes assium	os, ossium
	mas, marium	faux, faucium
	vas, vadium	mus, murium
	nox, noctium	caro, cranium
	nix, nivium	cor, cordium

Alituum from ales obtains u. Boum is anomalous, and also bobus or bubus.

Nouns whose genitive plural ends in ium, form the accusative by means of es and with the diphthong eis, as

	partium			partes		or eis
	omnium			omnes

And the most part of Greek nouns, when they are declined following the fashion of their tongue, they form the genitive in os, as

Titan		Titanos
Pan	genitive	Panos
Daphnis		Daphnidos
Phyllis		Phyllidos

However, the dative ends in a short i, as

	Titani		Daphnidi
	Pani		Phyllidi

The accusative ends in a, except they be of the neuter gender, as

	Pana		Amaryllida
	Phyllida		Orphea

Nevertheless, nouns ending in is and ys, which are declined in the genitive with a pure os, make the accusative by changing the s of the nominative into an n, as

Tethys, Tethyos		Tethyn
Decapolis, Decapolhos	accusative	Decapolin
Denesis, Denesios		Genesin
Metamorphosis, Metamorphosios		Metamorphosin

There are also nouns which end so much in m and n as in a, as {n. p.}

	Paris	accusative	Parin	and	Parida
	Themis		Themin		Themida
from genitives		Parios and Paridos
		Themyos and Themydos

Feminine nouns in o make the genitive in us, and the accusative in o, as

Sappho, Sapphus		Sappho
Manto, Mantus	these	Manto
Clio, Clius		Clio

The vocative is mostly similar to the nominative, yet in some nouns the s is removed from the nominative

	Pallas, Pallantis			Palla
	Theseus, Theseos			Theseu
	Phyllis, Phyllidos			Phylli
	Tethys, Tethyos			Tethy
	Alexis, Alexios			Alexi
	Achilles, Achilleos			Achille

Neuter singular nouns in a are Greek, as problema, poema, which the ancients also declined according to the Latin manner by adding the syllable tum, as hoc problematum, hoc poematum. Their dative and ablative plurals are still used more frequently, as problematis, poematis.

Fourth declension

There is almost nothing difficult in the fourth declension, for it has only two terminations for the nominative singular, namely

	us		as		manus
	u				genu

The u is only for the neuter, but in the singular it applies to all cases.

The ancients from the nominative {F}

anus		anuis
tumultus	said	tumulti	in the genitive
ornatus		ornati

Terence, eius anuis causa. Idem, Nihil ornati, nihil tumulti.

The dative has ui, and sometimes also u, as

	fructui		rarer		fructu
	concubitui				concubitu

Vergil, quod neque concubitu indulgent.

But currûm instead of curruum is a synaeresis, as it usually happens in other declensions. Iesus has Iesum in the accusative, while in the other cases is always Iesu. These nouns form the dative and ablative plural in ubus, as

acus		specus
lacus		quereus
artus	ubus	partus	ubus
acus		portus
tribus		veru
ficus

All the other nouns in ibus, as

	fructibus		manibus
	fetibus		motibus

Fifth Declension

The fifth declension has few genitives, datives, and ablatives plural, as it will be explained more extensively below among heteroclite nouns.

Formerly, some nouns of the third inflexion were declined according to this declension, as plebes, plebei.

Formerly, the genitive of this declension ended in es, ii, and e.

Cicero, equites vero daturos illius dies poenas.

Vergil, munera laetitiamque dii.

Sallust, vix decima parte die reliqua. {n. p.}

You have to carefully observe all the other nouns besides the ones that we have already mentioned, and which are called heteroclites by the grammarians. You will be able to learn some of these nouns from what the various recommended authors have written, and other nouns from the following rules.

Of Heteroclite Nouns

Nouns which vary in gender or inflection, all those that lack a predominant new form, are heteroclites.

Variances

You distinguish this variance of genders and mostly of the inflections:

Pergamus the unhappy city of the Trojans, gives birth to Pergama

Which, if it did not lack the plural, makes an architectural element of itself.

Singulars are feminine, neuters rejoice plurals.

The singular number gives to these nouns neuter gender, the plural both masculine and neuter,

Rastrum with freno, filum and likewise capistrum.

Similarly Argos and caelum are neuter singular, but pay attention,

You will call caelos and Argos only masculine.

But frena and frenos, following whose rule also others are declined.

Nundinum, and also epulum, to which you will add balneum, and these

Are actually neuter in the singular, in the plural they are feminine according to custom.

For Juvenal it is correct to have the plural Balnea.

These nouns are masculine in the singular, neuter in the plural.

Maenalus, and the sacred mountain Dindimus, Ismarus and

Tartara, Taygetus, ans so Taenera, Massica, and the high

Gargarus. But the number will imply both genders for these nouns:

Sibilus and iocus, locus, and Campanus Avernus.

Defectives

The remaining nouns which follow lack number or case {F. ii.}

Aptotes

Nouns whose case does not vary, as fas, nil, nihil, instar,

Many nouns in u, or likewise in i, as are both cornu and genu.

So are gummi, frugi, thus tempe, tot, quot, and you will call aptote all the

Numbers from three to a hundred.

Monoptotes

A monoptote is a noun which has only one case,

As noctu, natu, iussu, iniussu, likewise astu,

Promptu, permissu. We read astus in the plural.

We read inficias: it is found only in that case.

Diptotes

Diptotes are those nouns for which only two inflections remain,

As fors will make forte in the sixth case, and spontis sponte.

Likewise, plus has pluris, repetundarum repetundis.

And iugeris makes iugere in the sixth case. Also verbis

Verbere. And suppetiae makes suppetias in the fourth case.

Tantumdem makes tantidem. Likewise, impetis makes impete

In this last case. Add vicem with vice in the sixth case, I will say no more.

Verberis and vicem, and so plus with iungere:

These four preserved all cases in the second case.

Triptotes

Nouns which are inflected in three cases are called triptote,

As precis and precem, and I will propitiate prece as pleasant.

Thus, opis is what we say, take opem according to the rules, and ope is more suitable.

But only the nominative of frugis and of ditionis is missing.

Vis is a complete word, except if by chance it needs a dative.

In each of these nouns, the singular is mutilated, the plural is complete.

Words which relate, as qui, which inquire, as ecquis,

And which distribute, as nullus, neuter, and omnis,

Usually join indefinites to these, as quilibet, alter.

They often lack the fifth case and pronouns, except {n. p.}

The following four: noster, nostras, meus and tu.

You can observe that all proper nouns whose nature is limiting,

Will not be in the plural, as Mars, Cato, Gallia, Roma,

Ida, Tagus, Lelaps, Pernasus, and Bucephalus.

You can add to these cereals, herbs, moistures, metals.

You can seek yourself what authors think of these words.

Sometimes these words maintain the plural, sometimes they refuse to.

Ordea, farra, forum, mel, mulsum, defruta, and thus,

Only preserve three similar plural voices.

But these words hesperus and vesper, pontus, and limus and finimus,

So penus and sanguis, so aether, nemo,

Are masculine and hardly exceeding the singular number.

These singular words of the feminine gender are rarely plural:

Pubes and salus, so talio with tussis by nature.

Pix, humus, and lues, sitis and fuga, you can add quietem.

So cholera and fames, and bilis, senecta, iuventus.

However, these words soboles, labes, and also all nouns of the fifth declension

Will often maintain three similar cases of the plural.

Remove res, species, facies, and acies and dies,

All words whose number can also be plural.

Many feminine words usually join to these, as:

Stultitia, invidia, and sapientia, desidia and

And countless words of this kind, presented in the explanation

You have already been given , so that you can follow a common thread.

However, in more rare cases you can add the plural for these words.

Nor it is allowed to give the plural to these neuters:

Delicium, senium, letum, and cenum, and salum,

So barathrum, virus, vitrum, and viscum, and penum.

Iustitium, nihilum, ver, vas, gluten, also halec,

You can add genu, solium, iubar. Here you can also put many similar words {n. p.}

Which, if you observe, will occur to you while reading.

These masculine words are satisfied only with the plural,

Manes, maiores, cancelli, liberi, and antes,

Menses profluvium, lemures, fasti, and minores,

When genus means natales, you add penates,

And plural places, such as both Gabii, and Locri,

And whatever similar you read anywhere.

These nouns are of the feminine gender, and of the plural number:

Exuviae, phalerae, and grates, manubie, and idus,

Antiae, and induciae, likewise both insidiae, and minae,

Excubiae, nonae, nugae, and tricae, and calendae,

Quisquiliae, thermae, cunae, dirae, and exequiae,

Feriae and inferiae, and so primitiae, and plagae

When signifying retia, and valuae, and divitiae,

Nuptiae, and also lactes. Thebae and Athenae must be added,

And you find more names of the places of this kind.

These neuter nouns are read in the plural more rarely:

Moenia with tesquis, praecordia, lustra ferarum,

Arma, mapalia, so bellaria, munia, castra.

Funus requires iusta, and virgo requires sponsalia.

Rostra loves disertus, and pueri carry crepundia,

And infantes worship cunabula, augur consults

exta, and releasing superis effata recalls.

Festa deum as Bacchanalia can be added.

If you read more of these nouns, you will be allowed to put them also in this group.

Redundances

These nouns almost abound, reproducing different forms.

For instance, they vary gender and voice: tonitrus and tonitru.

So clypeus clypeum, baculus baculum and bacillum. {n. p.}

Sensus and this sensum, tignus and tignum. Tapetum,

And tapete tapes, punctus and punctum, sinapi

Which, by changing gender, is considered to be a scelerata sinapis.

Sinus and this sinum vas lactis, and menda mendum.

Viscus and this viscum, so cornu and flexile cornum,

But Lucan says, cornus tibi cura sinistri.

Eventus also eventum. But why do I devote attention to these?

You could find thousands of similar words in the writings of the learned.

But you should note some further Greek nouns,

Which have brought forth from the accusative case a new Latin word

For panther makes panthera, and cratera crater,

Cassis has cassida, but also aether makes aethera,

Hence comes cratera, comes aethera, thus caput ipsum

Is covered by cassida magna, and panthera will be tamed.

Here the nominative case is changed , the meaning and the same gender remain.

Gibbus and this gibber, cucumis cucumer, stipis and stips.

Thus cinis and ciner, vomis vomer, scobis and scobs.

Pulvis also pulver, pubis puber. To which you can add

Nouns ending in or and os, honor, and labor, arbor, and odor,

And this apes and apis, plebs plebes. There are many words

Taken from the Greeks that take a double form,

As delphin delphinus, and this elephas elephantus.

So congrus conger, meleagrus thus meleager,

Teucrus also Teucer. You will add here many other words

Which fair thinking and diligent readings will provide you with.

These words are at the same time of the fourth and of the second declensions.

Laurus indeed makes lauri and laurus in the genitive.

So quercus, pinus, ficus, both for fruit and tree.

This colus and penus, cornus, when a tree is considered.

So lacus, and domus, although this is not to be found in every case.

You also read plural forms for these, which you rightfully leave to the ancients. {n. p.}

And there are many adjectives that abound to be noted,

But first of all, many of these nouns and more expand your knowledge:

Arma, iugum, neruvus, somnus, and clivus, and animus,

And how much limus is there, how many frenum, and cera, bacillum,

From which you can form both us and is, as inermus inermis.

But hilarus is rarer: hilaris is the well-known word.

Of the Comparison of Nouns

Those nouns whose significance you can increase or decrease are compared.

There are three degrees of comparison

The positive, which means a thing without excess, as

	albus		probus
	niger		improbus

The comparative, whose positive meaning increases by means of the adverb magis, as

	albior		that is		magis albus
	probior				magis probus

It also regularly happens that the syllable or is added to the nominative case ending in i, as

from		amici		is made		amicior
		pudici				pudicior

The superlative, which means more than the positive with the adverb valde, as

	doctissimus		that is		valde doctus
	iustissimus				valde iustus

It also regularly happens that s and simus are added to the nominative case ending in i, as

from		candidi		is made		candidissimus
		prudenti				prudentissimus

However, the words ending in r form the superlative by adding rimus, as {n. p.}

	pulcher			pulcherrimus
	niger			nigerrimus
		dextimus	from		dexter
exceptions are		maturrimus or			from the ancient
		maturissimus			matur

These six words in lis form the superlative in limus, that is

	facilis		facillimus
	docilis		docillimus
	agilis		agillimus
	gracilis		gracillimus
	humilis		humillimus
	similis		simillimus

Nouns which are drawn from

	dico		volo
	loquor		facio

are compared in this manner,

maledicus		magniloquus
maledicentior	from dico	magniloquentior	from loquor
maledicentissimus		magniloquentissimus
benevolus		magnificus
benevolentior	from volo	magnificentior	from facio
benevolentissimus		magnificentissimus

If a vowel precedes the final us, the comparison should be made by means of the adverbs magis and maxime, as

	idoneus		arduus
	magis idoneus		magis arduus
	maxime idoneus		maxime arduus

At the same time, we must be very careful that words that occur rarely while reading the authors are used just as rarely. The following words are of this kind

	assiduior		egregiissimus
	strenuior		mirificissimus
	pientissimus or		ipsissimus

{G}

	piissimus		exiguissimus for Ovid
	perpetuissimus		multissimus for Cicero

Anomalous comparison

bonus	malus	magnus	parvus
melior	peior	maior	minor
optimus	pessimus	maximus	minimus

multus, plurimus	vetus	deterior
multa, plurima	veterior	deterrimus
multum, plus, plurimum	veterrimus	from the ancient deter

nequam	citra	intra	infra
nequior	citerior	interior	inferior
nequissimus	citimus	intimus	infimus

extra	supra	post	ultra
exterior	superior	posterior	ulterior
extimus or	supremus	postremus	ultimus
extremus	or summus

prope	pridem	diu	saepe
propior	prior	diutior	saepius
proximus	primus	diutissimus	saepissime
from this proximior

Defective comparison

	inclytus		meritus		opimus		sinister
	inclytissimus		meritissimus		opimior		sinisterior

ocior	novus	iuvenis
ocissimus	novissimus	iunior
from ὠκύς

	adolescens		senex		potior		ante
	adolescentior		senior		potissimus		anterior

	longinquus		nuper		pene
	longinquior		nuperrimus		penissimus

{n. p.}

Sometimes the comparison is also made from substantives, but incorrectly, as

Neronior		Nerone
Cynaedior	from	Cynaedo
Punior		Poeno

Of Pronouns

A pronoun is a part of speech which we use in showing or repeating a particular thing.

There are fifteen pronouns

	ego		meus
	tu		tuus
	sui		suus
	ille		noster
	ipse		vester
	iste		nostras
	hic		vestras
	is

To which we can also add compounds of these pronouns, as

	egomet		ut etiam
	tute		qui
	idem		quae
	and similar		quod

Of the Variations of Pronouns

Pronouns vary in

	type		declension
	number		person
	case		figure
	gender

Of the Type of Pronouns

There are two types of pronouns {G. ii.}

	primitive
	derivative

These belong to the primitive pronouns

ego	ille	hic
tu	ipse	is
sui	iste

Other pronouns among the primitives are

	demonstratives, or
	relatives

The same pronouns that are called primitive are actually also called demonstrative

ego	ille	hic
tu	ipse	is
sui	iste

Instead, the relatives are

	ille		hic		idem
	ipse		is		qui

Derivatives are

meus	noster	nostras
tuus	vester	vestras
suus

Different derivatives are

	possessives, or
	gentiles
		meus	noster
possessives are		tuus	vester
		suus

The pronouns that indicate the people and nation, or regions and doctrines are called gentiles, as

	nostras		and cuias
	vestras		for a noun

On Number

Pronouns have two numbers {n. p.}

	singular		as		Ego
	plural				Nos

Of Case

On the other hand, there are six cases, just like for nouns.

All pronouns lack the vocative, except these four

	tu		noster
	meus		nostras

Of Gender

Pronouns have genders just like the adjectives of nouns. So, they have three possible genders.

Of Declension

The are four declensions of pronouns. The genitive of the first declension ends in i, as

	ego	genitive		mei		and sui, which lacks the nominative
	tu			tui		in both numbers,

The genitive of the second declension ends in iüs or ius, and their forms are

ille		illius
ipse		ipsius
iste	genitive	istius
hic		huius
is		eius
qui		cuius

The genitive of the third declension ends in i, ae, i, and their result is

meus, mea, meum		mei, meae, mei
tuus, tua, tuum		tui, tuae, tui
suus, sua, suum	genitive	sui, suae, sui
noster, nostra, nostrum		nostri, nostrae, nostri
vester, vestra, vestrum		vestri, vestrae, vestri

The genitive of the fourth declension makes atis and follows this order {G. iii.}

nostras		nostratis
vestras	genitive	vestratis
cuias		cuiatis

Of Person

There are three persons of the pronouns

first		ego
second	as	tu
third		ille

Of Figure

There are two figures

	simple		as		ego
	compound				egomet

Pronouns are compounded together, as

egoipse

suiipsius

tuipse

meiipsius

istic

istunc

istoc

nominative

istaec

accusative

istanc

ablative

istac

istoc or

istoc

istuc

plural

nominative and

illic

accusative

istaec. Thus

illaec

is declined

and are also compounded with nouns, as

illoc

cuiusmodi

istiusmodi

huiusmodi

illiusmodi

And compounded with prepositions, as

mecum	nobiscum	quicum
tecum	vobiscum	quibuscum
secum

And likewise compounded with adverbs, as

eccum		ellum
eccam	from ecce	ellam	from ecce
eccos		ellos	and the same from
eccas		ellas	is and demum

{n. p.}

They are also compounded with conjunctions, as

	hiccine		hunccine		hoccine
nominative	haeccine	accusative	hanccine	ablative	haccine
	hoccine		hoccine		hoccine

Haeccine is the neuter plural.

Finally, pronouns are compounded with syllabic additions, as

	met		ce
	te		pte

Met is added to the first and second persons, as

	egomet		mihimet
	meimet		memet

On the contrary, we do not say tumet in the nominative, so that it is not believed to be a verb from tumeo, as

	tuimet		temet
	tibimet		vosmet etc.
Te is added to these		tu		as	tute
		and te			tete

Ce is added to the inflected forms of these pronouns

	hic
	ille
	iste, these often end in s, as
	huiusce		Hosce
	illiusce		Illosce
	istiusce		Istosce

Pte is put after ablatives

mea		meapte
tua		tuapte
sua	as	suapte
nostra		nostrapte
vestra		vestrapte

Sometimes it is added to masculine and neuter nouns, as

	meopte Marte		suopte iumento
	tuopte labore		nostropte damno etc.

{n. p.}

Quis and qui are compounded in this manner.

Quis is put after these particles in compounds

en		ecquis
ne		nequis
alius	as	aliquis
num		nunquis
si		siquis

And they both in the feminine singular and in the neuter plural

have qua, not quae		as		siqua mulier
				nequa flagitia etc.

Quis also is put after these particles in compounds

nam		quisnam
piam		quispiam
putas	as	quisputas
quam		quisquam
que		quisque

And they have quae and not qua anywhere except in the ablative singular

		as		quaenam doctrina
				negotia quaepiam

Quis is also compounded with itself, as quisquis, which varies in this way

nominative	quisquis	accusative	quicquid	ablative	quoquo
	quicquid				quaqua
					quoquo

Qui in compounds is put before these particles

dam		quidam
vis		quivis
libet	as	quilibet
cumque		quicumque

And these, anywhere except in the ablative singular

maintain quae, not qua		as		quaedam puella
				quaecumque facinora

{n. p.}

Of Verbs

A verb is a part of speech which is inflected according to modes and tenses, and it means being, or doing, or going through something

as		sum
		moveo
		moveor

First of all, verbs are divided into

	personal		as		doceo
	impersonal				oportet

A personal verb what we distinguish through the persons, as

	ego lego		hic legit
	tu legis		illi legunt

On the contrary, a verb which is not distinguished through persons is called impersonal, as

	poenitet		miseret
	taedet		oportet

Of the Variations of Verbs

These are the things that vary in verbs

	form		type
	mood		person
	tense		number
	figure		conjugation

Of Form

active

deponent

There are five forms of verbs

passive

common

neuter

Active

An active verb ends in o and can form the passive with or, as {H}

	doceo		doceor
	lego		legor

Passive

A passive verb ends in or and it can resume the active form by removing r, as

	amor		amo
	afficior		afficio

Neuter

A neuter verb ends in o or m. It cannot properly take neither the active nor the passive forms, as

	curro		iaceo
	ambulo		sum

There are three kinds of neuter verbs, because they are sometimes called substantival, as

	sum		est
	es		sumus etc.

Another kind of neuter verbs is called absolute: it carries the meaning itself. Moreover, on the contrary, it is double, for in the same verb another one expresses a complete action, as

	ambulo		pluit
	dormio		ningit

Another one actually means a complete passion in itself , as

	palleo		albesco
	rubeo		nigresco

And in addition, the neuter verb is different when it moves to an action with a similar meaning, and also uses the third person of the passive voice, as

	bibo vinum		vinum bibitur
	curro stadium		stadium curritur
	vivo vitam		vita vivitur

And finally, there are verbs that are both simple and neuter {n. p.} and are actually active compounds, as

	eo		adeo
	venio		advenio
	mingo		commingo

Deponent

Deponent verbs, which end in or, have either the meaning of the active, as loquor, or that of the neuter, as philosophor.

Common

Common verbs, which end in or, obtain both an active and passive meaning, as

veneror	osculor	interpreter
criminor	adulor	amplector
consolor	frustror	meditor
stipulor	dignor	experior
speculor	testor	ementior

And many others of this kind which you would find everywhere in the ancients.

Of Mood

We can count six modes of verbs.

The indicative, which simply defines anything that happens or does not happen, as probitas laudatur et alget. This mood is used sometimes to ask, sometimes to doubt, as quis leget haec? An in astu venit aliud ex alio malum?

The imperative, which we use to give orders. This mood does not have the future tense, but a double present, as according to Propertius, aut si es dura, nega: sin es non dura, venito.

Vergil,

Tityre dum redeo, brevis est via, pasce capellas,

et potum pastas age Tityre, et inter agendum {H. ii.}

occursare capro (cornu ferit ille) caveto.

On the other hand, the past tense is taken from the subjunctive.

Cicero, sed amabo te, nihil incommodo valetudinis tuae feceris.

Martial, dic quotus es, quanti cupias cenare, nec ullum addideris verbum: cena parata tibi est.

praeceptum sit

And indeed the passive voices

dictum sit

determinatum sit

Priscian acknowledged that there are past imperatives. This mood is also called permissive, because sometimes a permission is signified by it, as for Vergil, si sine pace tua, atque invito numine Troes Italiam petiere, luant peccata, nec illos iuveris auxilio.

Finally, it is sometimes called also hypothetical and hortative, as eamus, et in media arma ruamus.

The optative, by which we wish for something to happen, and it does not matter if something did not took place, or takes place, or it is going to take place, as utinam bonis literis, suus detur honos.

The optative, potential, and subjunctive moods are believed to have five different tenses in the same voices, as the author Linacre says.

Moreover, we must notice that the present of this mood sometimes acquires the meaning of the future, as utinam aliquando tecum loquar.

The potential mood, by which we refer to something that can, wants to, or must happen, as expectes eadem a summo minimoque poeta, instead of potes expectare. Non expectes, ut statim gratia agat, qui satiatur invitus, instead of non debes expectare.

Quis enim rem tam veterem, pro certo affirmet? Pro vult affirmare? {n. p.}

The Greeks express this mood either with the indicative, or with the optative and the particle ἄν.

The subjunctive, which does not complete a sentence by itself, unless it comes together with another utterance, as

Si fueris felix, multos numerabilis amicos,

Tempora si fuerint nubila, solus eris.

The infinitive, which means both to do or to undergo an action, and it has no precise difference in number or person, as malim probus esse, quam haberi.

Of Tense

There are five tenses.

The present, by which an action taking place now is expressed , as scribo.

The imperfect, by which something that someone has previously done is expressed, and that the action is not yet complete.

Vergil, hic templum Iunoni ingens, Sydonia Dido condebat.

That is to say, it was under construction in that moment.

The perfect, by which a past and finished action is expressed. It is double in the passive, deponent and common moods, and it is explained by this in a double circumlocution. One, by which the most recent past is expressed, as pransus sum. The other, by which a more distant past is indicated, as pransus fui. You will actually properly say pransus fui and not pransus sis.

The pluperfect, by which an action that is already past in the past is expressed.

The future, by which a thing that is to be done in the future is expressed. Some people call it the promising mood, because it seems to promise or desire for something to be done.

Ovid, ibimus o Nymphae, monstrataque saxa petemus.

This mood also has another gender, which is called ‘exact’ or perfect, as videro, abiero.

Terence, si te aequo animo ferre accipiet, negligentem {H. iii.} feceris.

This perfect future is actually also found in the subjunctive mood.

Pliny, ero securior dum legam, statimque timebo, quum legero.

Of Figure

There are two figures

	simple	as	facio
	compound		calefacio

Compound verbs whose simple figures have become obsolete are

	defendo		aspicio		experior
	offendo		conspicio etc.		comperior

	expedio		deleo		compello		incendo
	impedio		imbuo		appello		accendo

	ingruo		infligo		impleo		and others of this kind
	congruo		instigo		compleo

And also those that seem to come from the Greeks, as

	impleo from πλῶ
	procello from ϰελλω

Of Type

There are two types of verbs.

The primitive, which is the original form of the verb, as ferveo.

The derivative, when the verb is derived from the primitive, as fervesco.

There are five kinds of derivatives.

Inchoative derivatives – which Valla calls meditativa and augmentativa, i.e. verbs expressing either a meditative or a growing state– end in sco, as labasco, calesco, ingemisco, edormisco.

They mean either to begin, as lucescit – that is incipit lucere – or at least to develop and to be brought forward, as in Vergil, explere mentem nequit, ardescitque tuendo.

Most of them are used instead of the main themes, as timesco, hisco, conticesco that is timeo, hio, taceo.

Frequentative verbs end in to, so, xo, or tor, as {n. p.}

visito	pulso	nexo	sector
affecto	viso	texo	scitor
scriptito	quasso	vexo	sciscitor

They mean either some repetition or an intention, as dicito, that is dico frequenter, I say frequently; or viso that is eo ad videndum, I am going to see.

This group also includes verbs like vellico, fodico, albico, and others of this kind, which grammarians usually also call apparativa, i.e., verbs expressing a preparation.

Optative verbs end in rio, as lecturio, parturio, esurio, cenaturio. These verbs add to the meaning of its primitives some sort of eagerness or desire.

Diminutives end in lo or sso, as sorbillo, cantillo, pitisso, which mean sorbeo, canto, bibo in a smaller and moderate way.

Imitative verbs express an imitation, as patrisso, atticisso, platonisso. But Latins did not particularly like this form, as they used graecor instead of graecisso, like cornicor from cornice, vulpinor from vulpe, Bacchor from Baccho.

Of Person

	first		lego
There are three persons for verbs	second	as	legis
	third		legit

Of Number

There are also two numbers

	singular	as		lego
	plural			legimus

Of Conjugation

Since the rudiments of English explain how to conjugate verbs, a lesson which pupils must know properly and thoroughly, I will now discuss this, so that these extremely clear and highly useful rules on past and supine tenses by William Lily may be eagerly assimilated. {n. p.}

Of the Past Tenses of Simple Verbs

First Conjugation

The present in as makes the perfect tense in avi,

As no, nas, navi; vocito, vocitas, vocitavi,

Eliminate lavo, lavi; iuvo, iuvi, and nexo, nexui.

And seco, which makes secui, neco, which makes necui, the verb mico

Which makes micui, plico which makes plicui, frico which gives fricui

So domo, which makes domui, tono which makes tonui, the verb sono,

which makes sonui, crepo, which makes crepui, veto which gives vetui.

And cubo, cubui. These verbs are rarely formed in avi.

Do das usually makes dedi, sto stas needs to form steti.

Second Conjugation

The present in es makes the perfect tense in vi,

As nigreo, nigres, nigrui; iubeo except iussi.

Sorbeo has sorbui, also sorpsi. Mulceo, mulsi.

Luceo will have luxi; sedeo, sedi, and video

Will have vidi, but prandeo, prandi; strideo, stridi.

The first syllable is repeated in the following four verbs.

So pendeo has pependi, and mordeo has momordi,

Spondeo has spopondi, and tondeo has totondi,

Suadeo, suasi; rideo, risi, and ardeo has arsi.

If l or r is put before geo, geo is turned in si,

Urgeo to ursi, mulgeo gives mulsi and also mulxi.

Frigeo, frixi; lugeo, luxi; and augeo has auxi.

Fleo, fles gives flevi; leo, les gives levi, and thence comes

Deleo, delevi; pleo, ples, plevi; neo, nevi.

From maneo is formed mansi; torqueo, torsi;

Haereo will have haesi. Veo is made vi, as ferveo, fervi. {n. p.}

Niveo, and conniveo thence demand nivi

and nixi. Add these cieo, civi, and vieo, vievi.

Third Conjugation

The third conjugation will form the past tense as shown here.

Bo becomes bi, as lambo, lambi. Except scribo, scripsi.

And nubo, nupsi, the old cumbo gives cubui.

Co becomes ci, as vinco, vici; parco will have peperci

And parsi. Dico, dixi; duco also duxi.

Do becomes di, as mando, mandi. But scindo gives scidi.

Findo, fidi; fando, fudi, and tundo, tutudi,

Pendo, pependi; tendo, tetendi; pedo, pepedi.

Add cado, cecidi and instead of verbero, cedo, cecidi.

Cedo for discedere, or it is the case, cessi.

Vado, rado, laedo, ludo, divido, trudo,

Claudo, plaudo, rodo, from do always make si.

Go becomes xi, as iungo, iunxi. Bur r before go makes si.

As spargo, sparsi; lego, legi, and ago makes egi.

Say tango, tetigi; pungo, punxi and pupugi.

Frango gives fregi, when pango means pacisci,

It has pepigi; iungo for pegi, panxi for cano.

Ho becomes xi, as traho teaches traxi, and veho, vexi.

Lo becomes ui, as colo, colui. Except psallo with p,

And sallo without p, for both form salli.

Vello gives velli, vulsi and also fallo, fefelli.

Cello for frango, ceculi, and pello, pepuli.

Mo becomes ui, as vomo, vomui. But emo makes emi.

Como asks for compsi; promo, prompsi. You can add demo,

Which forms dempsi; sumo, sumpsi; premo, pressi.

No becomes vi, as sino, sivi. Except temno, tempsi.

Sterno gives stravi; sperno, sprevi; lino, levi,

sometimes lini and livi. And also cerno, crevi. {I}

Gigno, pono, cano give genui, posui, cecini.

Po becomes psi, as scalpo, scalpsi. Except rumpo, rupi.

And strepo, which forms strepui, crepo which gives crepui.

Quo becomes qui, as linquo, liqui: except coquo, coxi.

Ro becomes vi, as sero, when it means planto and semino, becomes sevi,

Because servi is better, but changes the meaning.

Verro has verri and versi; uro, ussi; gero, gessi;

Quaero, quaesivi; tero, trivi; curro, cucurri.

So just as accerso, arcesso, incesso, and lacesso

Will form sivi. But except capesso, capessi,

Which makes capessivi, and facesso, facessi.

So viso, visi, but pinso will have pinsui.

Sco becomes vi, as pasco, pavi; posco will have poposci.

Disco has didici, quinisco forms quexi.

To becomes ti, as verto, verti. But it can be observed that sisto,

When it means facio, remains active and rightly gives stiti.

Sterto has stertui; meto, messui. From ecto is made exi,

As flecto, flexi; pecto gives pexui and has

Pexi. Necto gives also nexui, and also has nexi.

Mitto gives misi; peto, petii or petivi.

Vo becomes vi, as volvo, volvi; except vivo, vixi.

Just like nexo has nexui, so texo has texui:

Cio becomes ci, as facio, feci, and iacio, ieci;

The ancient lacio, lexi; and specio, spexi.

Dio becomes di, as fodio, fodi; so gio, as fugio, fugi.

Pio becomes pi, as capio, caepi, except cupio, cupivi.

And rapio, rapui; sapio, sapui and sapivi.

Rio becomes ri, as pario, peperi; tio and ssi repeat the s,

As quatio, quassi, which is scarcely found in use.

Finally, uo becomes ui, as statuo, statui; pluo forms pluvi

Or plui. But struo, struxi; fluo, fluxi. {n. p.}

Fourth Conjugation

The fourth conjugation gives is, ivi, as shown by scio, scis, scivi.

Except venio giving veni; cambio, campsi;

Raucio, rausi; farcio, farsi; sarcio, sarsi;

Sepio, sepsi; sentio, sensi; fulcio fulsi;

Haurio also hausi; sancio, sanxi; vincio, vinxi.

For salto, salio, salui, and amicio gives amicui.

We rarely use cambivi, haurivi, amicivi,

Sepivi, sancivi, sarcivi, and salivi.

Of the Past of Compound Verbs

Simple and compound verbs have the same past tense,

As shown by docui and edocui. But the syllable which

Always doubles in the simple form, is not doubled in the compound.

Except in these three, praecurro, excurro, repungo,

And in verbs rightfully created from do, disco, sto, posco.

Verbs compounded from plico with sub, or a noun as these

Supplico, multiplico, usually form plicavi.

Applico, complico, replico, and explico, end in vi or in avi.

Although oleo in the simple form has olui, any verb

Compounded from it will form olevi.

But redolet and subolet follow the simple form.

All compounds from pungo will form punxi.

Sometimes repungo, repunxi will have pupugi.

Verbs coming from do, when it is of the third conjugation, as addo,

Credo, edo, dedo, reddo, perdo, abdo or obdo.

Condo, indo, trado, prodo, vendo, make didi. Except one:

Abscondo, abscondi. Verbs coming from sto will have stas, stiti.

Verb changing the first vowel in e.

These simple verbs of the present or past tense, {I. ii.}

When in compound form, change the first vowel in e.

Damno, lacto, sacro, fallo, arceo, tracto, fatiscor.

Parcio, carpo, patro, scando, spargo, and pario,

The two verbs born of which, comperit and reperit, make peri.

But the others make ui, as these: aperire, operire.

From pasco pavi, and note that these two,

Compounds, compesco and dipesco, have pescui.

The others, as epasco, will follow the simple rule.

Verbs changing the first vowel in i.

These verbs habeo, lateo, salio, statuo, cado, laedo.

Pango give pegi, cano, quaero, caedo, cecidi.

Tango, egeo, teneo, taceo, sapio, and rapio,

If in compound form, change the first vowel in i,

As rapio, rapui; eripio, eripui. Compounds from cano

Have the past in ui, as concino gives concinui.

So displiceo from placeo, but these two,

Complaceo and perplaceo, follow the simple rule.

The four compounds from pango maintain the a:

Depango, oppango, circumpango, and repango.

From maneo comes mansi, but these four give minui:

Praemineo, emineo, promineo and immineo.

The others will keep the simple form of the verb.

Compounds from scalpo, calco, salto, change the a in u,

As shown by exculpo, inculco, resulto.

Compounds from claudo, quatio, lavo, reject the a,

As shown by claudo, occludo, excludo, and compounds from quatio,

Percutio, excutio, from lavo proluo, diluo.

If you compound these verbs ago, emo, sedeo, rego, frango,

And capio, iacio, lacio, specio, praemo, they always

Change the first vowel of the present in i,

Never of the past, as frango, refringo, refregi.

From capio, incipio, incepi. But you will find only few {n. p.}

On the other hand the simple form is followed for perago and satago.

For dego from ago gives degi; cogo, coegi,

So from rego, pergo, perrexi, also surgo will have

Surrexi, after the middle syllable of the present is removed.

Facto does not change, unless when a preposition is put before.

As shown by olfacio with calfacio, and inficio.

Compounds from lego, if re, se, per, sub, or trans are put before,

Keep the vowel in the present, and change it in i in all other tenses,

Among them, only these intelligo, diligo, negligo,

make lexi in the past tense: all the others legi.

Of the Supine of Simple Verbs

Now you will learn how to form the supine from the past tense.

Bi obtains tum, and so bibi becomes bibitum.

Ci becomes ctum, as vici, victum, as witnessed ici

Gives ictum; feci, factum; and ieci, iactum.

Di becomes sum, as vidi, visum; some double the s,

As pandi, passum; sedi, sessum. Add scidi, which

Gives scissum, and fidi, fissum, and fodi, fossum.

Please also note that the first syllable of the supine,

When the paste tense usually doubles it, is not doubled.

As shown by totondi gives tonsum, and cecidi

Which gives caesum, and cecidi which gives casum, and tetendi

Which gives tensum, and tentum, tutudi, tunsum, and pepedi

Which makes peditum; add dedi which rightfully has datum.

Gi becomes ctum, as legi, lectum; pegi and pepigi

Give pactum; fregi, fractum, and tetigi, tactum;

Egi, actum; pupugi; punctum; fugi gives fugitum.

Li becomes sum, as salli, standing for sale condio, salsum.

Pepuli gives pulsum; ceculi, culsum, and fefelli,

Falsum; velli gives vulsum, and so tuli has latum. {I. iii.}

Mi, ni, pi, qui give tum, as shown here:

Emi, emptum; veni, ventum; cecini from cano, cantum.

Cepi from capio gives captum, from coepio, coeptum.

From rumpo, rupi, ruptum; also liqui, lictum.

Ri becomes sum, as verri, versum, except peperi, partum.

Si becomes sum, as visi, visum, but with the doubled s,

Misi will form missum, except fulsi, fultum;

Hausi, haustum; sarsi, sartum; also farsi, fartum;

Ussi, ustum; gessi, gestum; torsi has two supines, tortum

And torsum; also indulsi, which has indultum and indulsum.

Psi becomes ptum, as scripsi, scriptum, except campsi campsum.

Ti becomes tum, sosteti from sto, and sisto makes stiti in the past,

Commonly statum, except verti, versum.

Vi becomes tum, as flavi, flatum, except pavi, pastum.

Lavi gives lotum, sometimes lautum and lavatum.

Potavi, potum, and sometimes also makes potatum.

But favi, fautum; cavi, cautum; from sero, sevi,

Rightly make satum. Levi and livi give litum.

Solvi from solvo, solutum; volvi from volvo, volutum.

Singultivi will have singultum; veneo, venis,

Venivi, venum. Sepelivi rightly sepultum.

A verb that gives vi gives itum, as domui, domitum, except every

Verb in uo, because ui will always form utum,

As exui, exutum, except from ruo is given rui, ruitum.

Secui has sectum; necui, nectum; and fricui,

Frictum; miscui also mixtum; and amicui gives amictum.

Torrui has tostum; docui, doctum; and tenui,

Tentum; consului, consultum; alui, altum and alitum.

So salui, saltum: colui, occului and cultum.

Pinsui has pistum; rapui, raptum; and servi

From sero has sertum, and so texui has textum.

However these change ui in sum, so censeo, censum; {n. p.}

Cellui has celsum; meto has messui and messum;

Likewise nexui, nexum, and so pexui has pexum.

Patui gives passum; carui, cassum and caritum.

Xi becomes ctum, as vinxi, vinctum, and five verbs remove the n:

finxi, fictum; minxi, mictum, and in the supine

Pinxi gives pictum; strinxi and rinxi, rictum.

Flexi, plexi, fixi dant xum, and fluo, fluxum.

Of the Supine of Compound Verbs

Every compound supine is formed as the simple one,

Although they do not have the same syllable both.

From the compound tunsum, after the n is removed, comes tusum, from ruitum is made

Rutum, with the middle i removed, and of saltum, sultum.

From sero, which forms satum, the compound give situm.

These supines captum, factum, iactum, raptum change the a into e,

And so do cantum, partum, carptum, sartum and fartum.

A verb compounded from edo does not make estum, but esum,

Apart from one, comedo, which makes both.

From nosco there are only two compounds, cognitum and agnitum;

The others give notum, noscitum is no longer in use.

Of the Past Tenses of the Verbs in Or

Verbs in or receive from the ablative of the supine

The past tense by turning u into us, together with sum

or fui, as from lectu, lectus sum or fui. But some of these verbs

Sometimes are to be seen as deponent, and sometimes as common.

For labor gives lapsus, patior gives passus, and those

Born of it, as compatior, compassus, and perpetior

Forms perpessus; fateor which makes fassus and those

Born of it, as confiteor, confessus and diffiteor which

Forms diffessus; gradior gives gressus, and those

Born of it, as digredior, digressus. Add fatiscor,

Fessus sum; mensus sum, metior: uter and usus. {n. p.}

Ordior gives orditus, when it means texo, orsus when it means incoepto.

Nitor, nisus or nixus sum; and ulciscor, ultus.

And so Irascor, iratus; and reor, ratus sum;

Obliviscor has oblitus sum; fruor makes

Fructus or fruitus; add misereri, misertus.

Tuor and tueor do not have tutus, but tuitus sum,

Although both tutum and tuitum are supine.

To loquor add loquutus, and to sequor add sequutus.

Experior becomes expertus; paciscor wants

Pactus sum; nanciscor, nactus; apiscor,

Which is an old verb, aptus sum, from which adipiscor, adeptus.

Add queror, questus; proficiscor. Profectus;

Expergiscor, experrectus sum. And also these: comminiscor,

Commentus; nascor, natus; and morior,

Mortuus; and orior, whose past makes ortus.

Of Verbs that Form a Two Past Tenses

These verbs have the past tense of the active and passive voices:

Ceno forms cenavi and cenatus sum;

Iuro, iuravi and iuratus; and poto, potavi

And potus; titubo, titubavi or titubatus.

So careo, carui and cassus sum; prandeo, prandi

And pransus; pateo, patui and passus; and placeo

Gives placui and placitus; suesco, suevi and suetus.

Vaeneo for vendor, vaenivi and venditus sum.

Nubo, nupsi and nupta sum; mereor, meritus sum

Or merui; add libet, libuit and libitum. And add licet,

Which makes licuit and licitum. Taedet which gives taeduit and

Pertaesum. Add pudet, making puduit and puditum;

And piget, which forms piguit and pigitum. {n. p.}

Of the Past Tenses of Neuter Passive Verbs

Neuter passive verbs form the past tense in this way:

Gaudeo, gavisus sum; fido, fisus; and audeo

Ausus sum; fio, factus sum; soleo, solitus sum;

Maereo, sum maestus, but Phocae is considered a name.

Of Verbs That Borrow the Past Tense

Some verbs take the past tense somewhere else,

Inceptive verbs in sco standing for the primary verb adopt

The past from that verb, therefore tepesco

From tepeo has tepui; fervesco from ferveo, ferui.

Video from cerno has vidi; quatio from concutio

Has the past concussi, and, from percutio, ferio

Has percussi; meio, from mingo, has minxi.

Sido, from sedeo, has sedi; tollo, from suffero,

Sustuli; and from suo, sum fui; and rightly from tulo, fero has tuli;

Sisto, from sto, steti, only for stare; and furo has

Insanivi from a verb of the same meaning.

So, vescor, medeor, liquor and reminiscor borrow

The past tense from pascor, medicor, liquefio, recordor.

Of Verbs Without the Past Tense

These verbs avoid the past tense: vergo, ambigo, glisco, fatisco,

Polleo, nideo. In addition to these inceptives, as puerasco,

And passives, whose supine lack the active form,

As metuor, timeor. All contemplatives, i. e. verbs expressing dispositions, except

Parturio, esurio, which keep two past tenses.

Of Verbs That Rarely Admit the Supine

These verbs will rarely or never keep the supine: {K}

Lambo, mico, micui, rudo, scabo, parco, peperci,

Dispesco, posco, disco, compesco, quinisco,

Dego, ango, sugo, lingo, mingo, and satago,

Psallo, volo, nolo, malo, tremo, strideo, strido,

Flaveo, liveo, avet, paveo, conniveo, fervet.

Compounds of nuo, as renuo, of cado, as incido, except

Occido, which makes occasum, and recido, recasum.

Respuo, linquo, luo, metuo, cluo, frigeo, caluo,

And sterto, timeo. So luceo and arceo, whose

Compounds have ercitum. So compounds of gruo, as ingruo,

And each neuter verb of the second conjunction formed in ui,

Except oleo, doleo, placeo, and taceo,

Pareo, also careo, noceo, pateo, and lateo,

And valeo, caleo, for these actually have the supine.

Of Defective Verbs

But now, in order for you to deal with the verb in its entirety in order,

You will add to these few mutilated and anomalous verbs,

That, at least as because they remain defective, are not suitable for lines,

Which love to proceed with proper and complete feet.

To these verbs what follows, which you distinguish from them, is added as a free expression.

Aio

		aio
present indicative		ais	plural aiunt
		ait
	aiebam			aiebamus
past imperfect	aiebas		plural	aiebatis
	aiebat			aiebant

{n. p.}

imperative

present optative		aias	plural		aiamus
potential and subjunctive		aiat			aiant

present participle

aiens

Ausim

present optative	ausim
potential and subjunctive	ausis	plural	ausint
	ausit

Ave

imperative		ave	plural		avete
		aveto			avetote

Cedo

imperative

cedo

plural

cedite

Faxo

	faxo
future	faxis	for faciam, or fecero. Plural faxint
	faxit

Forem

imperfect optative		forem			essem
potential and subjunctive		fores		for	esses		plural forent
		foret			esset
infinitive	fore		that is			futurum esse

Quaeso

present indicative

quaeso

plural

quaesumus

Infit

Infit is a single voice, meaning dicit or dixit. {K. ii.}

Inquio and inquam

	inquo or inquam
present indicative	inquis	plural inquiunt
	inquit

past perfect		inquisti
		inquit

future		inquies
		inquiet

imperative		inque for Terentium
		inquito for Plautum

present optative		inquiat
potential and subjunctive

participle

inquiens

The following verbs

	odi		coepi
	memini		novi

have the complete voices of the past perfect, pluperfect and future of all moods: as for the other moods, they are mostly missing, except for memini, which has memento in the imperative singular and mementote in the plural.

Pupils will also notice

	dor		der
	furo		fera
	for		for, simple verbs not to be found.

In addition

	dic		dice
	duc		duce
	fer		fere
	fac		face

Are voices that are broken by means of apocope.

And you will finally observe that {n. p.}

	eo and	have in the imperfect		ibam	in the future		ibo
	queo			quibam			quibo

Of Impersonal Verbs

What has been said so far about personal verbs, must in turn certainly be said about impersonal verbs, which do not have the nominative of a specific person, but change the nominative of the person must be changed in the other cases, as what we say in English in the personal form – “I must read Vergil” – in Latin is expressed in the impersonal form – as oportet me legere Vergilium.

There are two types of impersonal verbs	active voices
	passive voices

Impersonal verbs of the active voice are these and other similar to them

est	accidit	vacat	iuvat
interest	contingit	prestat	constat
refert	evenit	restat	conducit
placet	expedit	decet	miseret
libet	liquet	oportet	piget
poenitet	licet	potest	pudet
taedet	solet

Some of these are used in the personal form, as

	virtus placet probis
	pecunia omnia potest
	ars iuvat egentes

		oportet
Some verbs, however, always remains impersonal, as		pudet
		poenitet

Moreover, they are conjugated in the third person for all moods

	the past tense of liquet does not exist
	taedet forms pertaesum est
	miseret, and miserescit, misertum est

{K. iii.}

These forms are also found in use

placitum est		placet
libitum est		libet
puditum est	past tense from	pudet
licitum est		licet
pigitum est		piget

Impersonals of the passive voice are made from any verb,

actives and neuters, as		curritur
		turbatur

Impersonals do not have gerunds and supines.

Of Gerunds

Gerunds can be called participial, as they are similar to participles, in the same way as we call proverbial things that are similar to proverbs.

Therefore, as we have seen little agreement among the grammarians about whether they concern more verbs or to participles, we leave them here in proximity to both parts, so that they may ascribe themselves to one of the two groups.

Moreover, they take their case from the noun, their meaning from an active, passive or neuter verb. And because they do not accept any difference of tenses for separate voices, nor of number or person, they cannot be regular participles.

		di, of the genitive case
There are three terminations of gerunds		do, of the dative and ablative
		dum, of the nominative and accusative

Although there is no doubt that most of these gerunds have an active meaning, sometimes their meaning is passive. These will be examples of passive meaning: Athenas quoque missus erudiendi causa, that is, ut erudiretur. Uritque videndo femina, that is, dum videtur. Satis ad cognoscendum illustria. Ars ad discendum facilis. {n. p.}

Of Supines

Supines are also rightly called participial verbs, and they have all the same characteristics of gerunds. However, they end

	in the first case in um	ut		visum
	in the last in u			visu

Of Participles

A participle is a part of speech which is declined by case and which derives its genders and cases from the noun, its tenses and meanings from the verb, its number and figure from both in a somehow precarious way.

Of the Variations of the Participle

	form	meaning
Six things vary for the participle	case	number
	tense	figure

However, what has been established before on form and case in the section on nouns is also to be applied here.

Tense

Participles have four tenses.

The present in ans, or in ens, as		amans
		legens

On the other hand, there is no simple participle in iens from eo

but		euntis		euntem		in the other cases
		eunti		eunte

{n. p.}

And in compounds like

abeuntis

except

ambiens

redeuntis

their gerunds also follow this form, as

ambientis etc.

Meaning

The participles that come from active verbs have an active meaning, as

	docens		docturus
	verberans		verberaturus

Those that come from neuter verbs have a neuter meaning, as

	currens		cursurus
	dolens		doliturus

We can also find participles in dus from some neuter verbs, as

	dubitandus		carendus
	vigilandus		dolendus

Those that come from a passive verb have a passive meaning, as

	lectus		legendus
	auditus		audiendus

There are also passive participles from such neuter verbs whose third persons are used passively, as aratur terra, hence arata and aranda terra.

Participles formed from deponents imitate the meaning of their verbs, as

	loquens
	loquutus		from loquor
	loquuturus

{n. p.}

Deponents that were once common verbs maintain the future in dus, as

	sequendus		patiendus
	loquendus		obliviscendus
	utendus		and others of this gender

There are also deponent participles of the past tense, which have nor an active nor a passive meaning.

Vergil, nunc oblita mihi tot carmina.

Terence, meditata sunt mihi omnia mea incommoda.

Vergil, mentitaque tela agnoscunt.

Finally, participles of common verbs acquire the meaning of these verbs, as

	criminans		criminaturus
	criminatus		criminandus

There are no participles coming from impersonal verbs, except

	poenitens		pertaesus
	decens		poenitendus
	libens		pudendus

These participles are derived from their verbs, contrary to the rule

	pariturus		nosciturus
	nasciturus		moriturus
	sonaturus		oriturus
	arguiturus		osurus
	luiturus		futurus
	eruiturus

These are similar to participles.

	tunicatus		personatus
	togatus		larvatus

And innumerable nouns of this kind.

Number

Participles also have the number, like the noun: {L} singular, as legens, and plurals, as legentes.

Of Figure

There are two figures		simple	as		spirans
		compound			respirans

Sometimes participles change into participial nouns or when they take a word of a different case from their own, as

	abundans lactis		patiens inediae
	appetens alieni		fugitans litium

Or when they are compounded with prepositions, with which these verbs cannot be compounded themselves, as

	infans		indoctus
	innocens		ineptus

Or when they are compared, as

	amans		doctus
	amantior		doctior
	amantissimus		doctissimus

Or when their ending indicates the tense. Such are the participles in rus and dus, as expectem, qui me numquam visurus abisti? That is, qui eo animo discessisti, ut me amplius non videres?

Nullam mentionem fecit cometarum, non praetermissurus, si quid explorati haberet, that is, ita affectus, ut non praetermitteret.

Amandus est doctissimusque quisque, that is, dignus est, vel debet amari.

Eiicienda est haec mollities animi, that is, debet eiici.

Participles of the present tense often become substantive nouns of the masculine gender, as

{n. p.}

Of the neuter gender, as		contingens		antecedens
		accidens		consequens

Of the common gender, instead of the verbals in tor or trix, as

	appetens		sitiens
	diligens		indulgens

Animans is found sometimes in the feminine gender and sometimes in the neuter.

Of Adverbs

An adverb is an undeclined part of speech which, when it is added to a verb, completes and explains its meaning.

In fact, sometimes it explains just like a noun, as homo egregie impudens. Ne parum sis leno.

Other times like an adverb, as parum honeste se gerit.

Of the Variations of Adverbs

Adverbs vary by

	meaning		form
	comparative degree		figure

The different meanings are to be gathered from the circumstances of the words.

Adverbs of Place

These adverbs mean “in a place”

hic	ubique	alicubi
illic	ubicunque	necubi
istic	ubilibet	sicubi
intus	utrobique	inibi
foris	ubivis	ibidem
usquam	ubiubi	inferius
nusquam	ibi	superius
ubi	alibi

{L. ii.}

These actually concern “to a place”

huc	siquo	aliorsum
illuc	eo	dextrorsum
istuc	eodem	sinistrorsum
intro	quolibet	sursum
alio	quovis	deorsum
quo	quocunque	utroque
aliquo	foras	neutro
nequo	horsum	quoquoversum
quoquo

These indicate “from a place”

hinc	aliunde	undevis
illinc	alicunde	undecunque
istinc	sicunde	superne
foras	necunde	inferne
inde	indidem	caelitus
unde	undelibet	funditus

And finally, “through a place”

hac	ea	qua
illac	eadem	siqua
istac	alia	nequa
quacunque	aliqua	quaque

Of Time

Adverbs of time are

quando	aliquoties	nudiustertius
aliquando	heri	nudiusquartus
quandiu	hodie	nudiusquintus
quandudum	cras	nudiussextus etc.
quampridem	pridie	diu
usque	postridie	noctu
quousque	perendie	interdiu
toties	mane	nunc
quoties	vesperi	iam

{n. p.}

nuper	saepe	numquam
alias	raro	unquam
olim	subinde	adhuc
idem	identidem	etiam, for adhuc
pridem	plerunque	hactenus
dudum	quotidie	indiem
tantisper	quotannis	inhoram
paulisper	in dies	et similia
parumper

Usque is an adverb of time and place, as usque sub obscurum noctis. Ab Aethiopia est usque haec. And ubi is put instead of semper or continuo, as usque metu micuere sinus.

Of Number

Adverbs of number, as

	semel		septies
	bis		centies
	ter		millies
	quarter		pluries
	quinquies		infinities etc.

Of Order

Adverbs of order are

	inde		postremo
	deinde		primum
	hinc		iamprimum
	dehinc		denique
	novissimo		tandem
	imprimis		adsummum etc.

Interrogative

Interrogative adverbs are {L. iii.}

	cur		num
	quare		quid ita
	quomodo		quo
	ecquid		unde
	quin for cur		quantum

Exclamative

Exclamative adverbs are o, heus, and other similar ones.

Denying

	haud	nequaquam
Denying adverbs, as	non	ne instead of non
	minime	and similar ones

Affirmative

Affirmative adverbs, as

etiam	prorsus	profecto
sic	nempe	adeo
quidni	nimirum	plane
sane	certe	scilicet

Swearing

	hercule	pol
Swearing adverbs, as	mehercules	aedepol
	mediusfidius	castor
	diusfidius	ecastor

Exhortative

	age	agedum
Exhortative adverbs, as	sodes	ehodum
	sultis	eia
	amabo	agite

Prohibitive

Prohibitive adverbs, as ne.

Optative

Optative adverbs, as utinam, o, osi, si. {n. p.}

Excluding

	modo	tantum
Excluding adverbs, as	dummodo	solum
	tantummodo	duntaxat
	solummodo	demum

Gathering

	simul	populatim
Gathering adverbs, as	una	universim
	pariter	coniunctim etc.

Separating

	seorsim	privatim
	gregatim	speciatim
Separating adverbs, as	egregie	bifariam
	nominatim	trifariam
	viritim	omnifariam
	oppidatim	plurifariam

Of Difference

Adverbs of difference, as aliter, secus.

Choosing

Adverbs of choosing, as		potius		imo
		potissimum		satius

Of Degree

	valde	prorsus
	nimis	penitus
Adverbs of degree, as	nimium	funditus
	immodice	radicitus
	impendio	omnino
	impense

Diminishing

	vix	sensim
Diminishing adverbs, as	aegre	pedetentim
	paulatim

{n. p.}

Concessive

Concessive adverbs, as		licet		sit ita
		esto		sit sane

Of Non-Uniqueness

Adverbs of non-uniqueness, as		non solum		non modo
		non tantum		nedum

Of Quality

Adverbs of quality, as		docte		fortiter
		pulchre		graviter

Of Quantity

	parum	summum
Adverbs of quantity, as	minime	adsummum
	maxime	et similia

Of Comparison

	tam	maxime
Adverbs of comparison, as	quam	minime
	magis	aeque
	minus

For Unfinished Things

	ferme	propemodum
Adverbs for unfinished things, as	fere	tantum non
	prope	modo non

Demonstrative

Demonstrative adverbs, as en, ecce, sic, as sic scribito.

Explaining

	id est	puta
Explaining adverbs, as	hoc est	utputa
	quasi dicas	utpote

Dubitative {n. p.}

	forsan	fors
Dubitative adverbs, ut	forsitan	fortasse
	fortassis

Of chance

Adverbs of chance, as		forte
		casu		fortuna

Of Similarity

	sic	tamquam
	sicut	quasi
Adverbs of similarity, as	sicuti	ceu
	ita	uti
	item	velut
	itidem	veluti

Of Comparative Degree

Adverbs which are born of noun adjectives are compared and take the comparative and superlative cases, as

	docte
	doctius illo
	doctissime omnium

And similarly other ones, as

	bene		saepe
	melius		saepius
	optime		saepissime
	male		nuper
	peius		nuperrime
	pessime

Of Form

Adverbs have two forms: base – which originates from itself, as heri, cras –

and derivative, which is born from elsewhere, as {M}

	furtim from furor
	strictim from stringo
	humaniter from humanus

Sometimes neuter adjectives take on the form of adverbs, imitating the Greeks, as

	recens		instead of		recenter
	torvum				torve

Of Figure

There are two figures		simple	as		prudenter
		compound			imprudenter

Of Conjunctions

A conjunction is a part of speech which properly connects the clauses of sentences.

Of the Variations of Conjunctions

		figure
Conjunctions vary in		power
		order

Of Figure

There are two figures		simple	as		nam
		compound			namque

Of Power

Power, that is, their meaning is different, in fact some of the conjunctions are copulative, as

et	atque	item
ac	quoque	itidem
que	etiam	cum
		tum et tum

{n. p.} Likewise repeated, as vir tum probus, tum eruditus, are due here, as well as the opposite ones, as

	nec		neu
	neque		neve

The following four – et, que, nec, neque – when they are repeated, are also called suspensive, because they always make you wait for something else, as et fugit, et pugnat. Nec sapit ista, nec sentit.

	aut	seu
Others are disjunctive, as	vel	sive
	ve

And when these are repeated, they are called suspensive too, as vel scribit, vel dictat.

Others are discretive, as

sed	quidem	vero
sed enim	autem	enimvero
at	quoque	quodsi
ast	scilicet	verum
atqui	caeterum	porro
		quin

Others rational or illative, as

	ergo		quare
	ideo		quamobrem
	igitur		quocirca
	itaque		proinde
	idcirco		propterea
			eare

Cicero, eare statim ad te Aristocritum misi.

Others are called causal, as

nam	quia	propterea quod
namque	quippe	quoniam
enim	utpote	quando
etenim	siquidem	quatenus
quod	quandoquidem	and for quia

{M. ii.}

Others perfective or absolutive, as

uti

quo, instead of ut

ne and ut, instead of ne non. Terence, sed patris vim, ut queas ferre.

ne, instead of ut non. Cicero, opera datur, iudicia ne fiant.

Others continuative, as

sin

nisi

num

utrum

Others dubitative, as

numquid

necne

anne

etsi

licet

Others adversative, as

quamquam

tametsi

quamvis

and others of this kind

Others repeating the same things, as

tamen

sedtamen

attamen

verumtamen

Others diminutive, as

saltem

certae

vel, as ne vel latum digitum cessit

quam

Others elective, as

atque, when are taken instead of quam

quidem

nam

equidem

profecto

Others expletive, as

nimirum

vero

autem

enimvero

scilicet

sedenim

quoque

enim instead of certe

Vergil, nam quis te iuvenum confidentissime nostras iussit adire domos?

Terence, enim non sinam.

There are words that sometimes are adverbs, sometimes conjunctions, {n. p.} sometimes prepositions, as cum, which is a preposition every time it is tied to a case.

When vero is put before the subjunctive mode, it is a conjunction.

But, when it is used instead of quando, it is an adverb.

Conjunctions are distinguished from adverbs by a slight difference in gender so much that they are often confused in number, as quando, proinde, and similar ones.

Of Order

There are three orders of conjunctions, that is

	prepositive
	subjunctive
	common

Among conjunctions, these in the first group are usually put before

	nam		aut		quatenus
	quare		vel		sin
	ac		nec		seu
	ast		neque		sive
	atque		si		ni
	et		quin		nisi
		quidem		vero
Subjunctive conjunctions are		quoque		enim
		autem		et
And there are three enclitics – que, ne, ve – so called because they incline the stress in the preceding syllable, as

Ludere qui nescit, campestribus abstinet armis,

Indoctusque pilae, discive trochive quiescit.

Finally, we call common those conjunctions which can be indifferently put before and after, as are almost all the others, except the above mentioned, as

	equidem		saltem
	ergo		tamen
	igitur		quamquam etc.

{M. iii.}

Of Prepositions

A preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, which is put before other parts of speech by composition or by apposition.

Apposition, as Christus sedet ad dextram patris.

Composition, as adactum iuramentum adhibendum admonuit.

Some prepositions are found as put after, as

cum		quibuscum
tenus	as	pube tenus
versus		Angliam versus
usque		ad occidentem usque

Of the Variations of Prepositions

Prepositions follow a rule for cases, or a construction. Besides, in these cases, there is a remarkable variety of meaning, which must be learned not so much through the rules, as through constant practice of reading and writing.

Exempli gratia

Secundum

Secundum means something when I say Secundum aurem vulnus accepit. But another thing here, Secundum deum patria colenda est. And another in this sentence, Secundum quietem satis mihi felix visum sum.

Prepositions of the Accusative

Among the prepositions, these are joined to the accusative case.

Ad calendas graecas.

Apud

Et bene apud memores, veteris stat gratia facti.{n. p.}

Ante

Dicique beatus ante obitum nemo supremaque funera debet.

Adversus

Ne Hercules quidem adversus duos.

Cis

Cis Thamesim sita est Aetona.

Citra, ultra

Est modus in rebus, sunt certi denique fines:

Quos ultra citraque nequit consistere rectum.

Intra

Crede mihi bene qui latuit, bene vixit, et intra

Fortunam debet quisque manere suam.

Extra

Extra omnem ingenii aleam positus Cicero.

Circum

Locale est, ut circum montem.

Circa

Circa forum, circa viginti annos.

Circiter

Tempus et numerum significat.

Circiter horam decimam.

Circiter duo millia desiderati sunt.

Contra

Ne contra stimulum calces.

Erga

Princeps erga populum clemens.

Inter

Multa cadunt inter calicem, supremaque labra.

Infra

Quem ego infra omnes homines esse puto.

Supra

Dux hostium cum exercitu supra caput est.

Iuxta

Cum lucubrando iuxta ancillas lanam faceret. {n. p.}

Foeda mors ob oculos versabatur.

Per

Impiger extremos currit mercator ad Indos.

Per mare pauperiem fugiens, per saxa, per ignes.

Prope

Prope urbem, prope mortem.

Praeter

Ita fugias, ne praeter casam.

Propter

Aliquid mali, propter vicinum malum.

Post

O cives, cives, quaerenda pecunia primum, virtus post nummos.

Penes

Me penes est unum vasti custodia mundi.

Trans

Caelum, non animum mutant, qui trans mare currunt.

Prepositions of the ablative.

A Iove principium musae, Iovis omnia plena.

This is put before vowels.

Ab alio expectes, alteri quod feceris.

Abs

Abs quivis homine beneficium accipere, gratum est.

Absque

Absque eo esset.

Cum

Damnum appellandum est, cum mala fama, lucrum. {n. p.}

Clam

Clam patre, and for Plautus, clam patrem.

Coram

Coram senatu acta res est.

Sophistae rixantur de lana caprina.

Qui falsum testimonium dixisse convictus erat, e saxo Tarpeio deiciebatur.

Ex malis moribus bonae leges natae sunt.

Pro

Comes facundus in via pro vehiculo est.

Prae

Huic aliquid prae manu dederis.

Sine

Nulla dies sine linea ducenda est.

Tenus

Capuloque tenus ferrum impulit ira.

Prepositions of both other cases

These four demand both cases, but usually with different meanings.

In tempore veni, quod omnium rerum est primum.

Inque domos superas scandere cura fuit.

Sub

Sub lucem exportant calathis.

Vasto vidisse sub antro.

Super

Super se collocavit.

Fronde super viridi. {N}

Subter

Subter terram.

Densa subter testudine.

And there are prepositions which are never found outside composition, like

an		ambio
di		diduco
dis	as	distraho
re		recipio
se		sepono
con		condono

Of Interjections

An interjection is a part of speech which shows the disposition of the soul with an inelegant expression.

So, there are as many meanings of interjections as feeling of a troubled soul.

Of exultation, as euax, vah. Plautus, euax iurgio tandem uxorem abegi.

Of pain, as, heu, hoi, hei, o, ah. Terence, i intro, hoi, hei. Vergil, o dolor atque decus magnum.

Of fear, as hei, at, atat. Terence, hei vereor ne quid Andria apportet mali.

Of admiration, as pape. Terence, pape nova figura oris.

Of avoidance, as apage, apagesis. Terence, apagesis, egon formidolosus?

Of praise, as euge. Martial, cito, nequiter, euge, beate.

Of calling, as eho, oh, io. Terence, oh qui vocare.

Of mocking, hui. Terence, hui tu mihi illam laudas?

Of discovery of something unexpectedly, as atat. Terence, atat, data hercle mihi sunt verba.

Of exclamation, as o, pro, pro nefas. Seneca, o paupertas {n. p.} felix.

Of curse, as malum, uae malum. Terence, quid hoc, malum infelicitatis est?

Of laugh, as ha ha he. Terence, ha ha he defessa iam misera sum te ridendo.

Of imposing silence, as au. Terence, au ne comparandus hic quidem ad illum est.

Now you must observe that also nouns and sometimes verbs are put instead of an interjection, as for Vergil, navibus infandum amissis. Cicero, sed amabo te cura. In fact, every part of speech confusedly expressing a feeling of the soul performs the function of an interjection. {n. p.}

On the Construction of the Eight Parts

So far we have been discussing the eight parts of speech and their forms, as far as what pertains to etymology; now we will deal with them from the point of view of syntax, which is called “construction”.

Therefore, the construction is the correct word order of the parts of speech among themselves, according to the proper rules of grammar. So it is that the most excellent men of the past are used to those rules, both in writing and in speaking.

Besides, before we examine the structures of the parts of speech individually, those of the three concordances of grammar ought to be briefly discussed in general.

Agreements of the Nominative and Verb

A personal verb agrees with the nominative in number and person, as numquam sera est ad bonos mores via. Fortuna numquam perpetuo est bona.

The nominative of the first or second person is not expressed, except to make a distinction, as vos damnastis, as if to say “no one more”, or because of emphasis, as tu es patronus, tu pater, si deseris tu, perimus, as though he said, praecipue et prae aliis tu patronus es.

In verbs whose meaning pertains only to men, the nominative of the third person of is often implied, as est, fertur, dicunt, ferunt, aiunt, praedicant, clamitant, and similar ones, as fertur atrocia flagitia designasse.

Teque ferunt irae poenituisse tuae.

The verb does not always have a voice declined in the nominative case, but sometimes it has an infinitive verb, as mentiri non est meum. {n. p.} Sometimes a sentence, as adde quod ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes, emollit mores, nec sinit esse feros. Sometimes an adverb with a genitive, as partim virorum ceciderunt in bello. Partim signorum sunt combusta.

First Exception

Verbs of the infinite mood put before themselves an accusative instead of the nominative, as te rediisse incolumen gaudeo. Te fabulam agere volo. This mood can be resolved through quod and ut in this way: Quod tu rediisti incolumis gaudeo. Ut tu fabulam agas, volo.

Second Exception

Impersonal verbs are not preceded by a nominative, as taedet me vitae. Pertaesum est coniugii. De quibus suo loco.

A singular collective noun is sometimes joined to a plural verb, as pars abiere. Uterque deluduntur dolis.

Agreements of the noun and adjective

The adjective agrees with the noun in gender, number, and case, as rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cygno.

Participles and pronouns are connected to nouns in the same way, as donec eris felix, multos numerabis amicos.

Nullus ad amissas ibit amicus opes.

Seneca, non hoc primum pectora vulnus mea senserunt, graviora tuli.

Sometimes a sentence stands for a noun, as audito regem Doroberniam proficisci.

Agreements of the relative and its antecedent

The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, {N. iii.} and person, as vir bonus est quis?

Qui consulta patrum, qui leges iuraque servat.

Not only a single word, but sometimes also a sentence is used as the antecedent, as in tempore ad eam veni, quod omnium rerum est primum.

A relative which is put between antecedents with a different gender, sometimes agrees with the former, as senatus assiduam stationem eo loci peragebat, qui hodie senaculum appellatur.

Non procul ab eo flumine, quod Saliam vocant.

Propius a terra Iouis stella fertur, quae Phaeton dicitur.

Sometimes with the latter, as homines tuentur illum globum, quae terra dicitur.

Est locus in carcere quod Tullianum appellatur.

In coito lunae, quod interlunium vocant.

Sometimes a relative, and sometimes a noun or adjective responds to the primitive, which is understood in the possessive, as et laudare fortunas meas, qui haberem filium tali ingenio praeditum. Nostros vidisti flentis ocellos.

When no nominative is put between the relative and the verb, the relative will act as the nominative for the verb, as felix qui potuit boni fontem visere lucidum.

And if the nominative is put between the relative and the verb, the relative will be taken by a verb, or by another word which is put in the speech with the verb, as Ovid, gratia ab officio, quod mora tardat, abest.

Cuius numen adoro.

Quorum optimum ego habeo.

Cum similem non vidi.

Quo dignum indicavi.

Quo melius nemo scribit.

Quem videndo obstupuit.

Lego Vergilium, prae quo, caeteri poetae sordent etc. {n. p.}

Of the Construction of Nouns

When two substantives with different meaning come together, the latter is put in the genitive, as crescit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia crescit

	rex pater patriae		cultor agri
	princeps spes Angliae		arma Achillis

And this genitive is sometimes changed into a possessive, as

	patris domus		heri filius
	paterna domus		herilis filius

Sometimes it is also turned into dative, as urbi pater est, urbique maritus.

Herus tibi, mihi pater.

Exception

The nouns in the same case that are connected an apposition make an exception, as effodiuntur opes irritamenta malorum.

Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent.

An adjective put in the neuter gender absolute sometimes requires a genitive, as paulum pecuniae, hoc noctis. Non videmus manticae quod in tergo est.

Quantum quisque sua nummorum servat in arca, tantum habet et fidei.

Other times a genitive is put due to an understood noun, as in sentences of this kind.

Ubi ad Dianae Veneris, ito ad dexteram. Ventum erat ad Vestae. In both examples templum is understood.

Hectoris Andromache: uxor is understood. Delphobe Glauci: filia is understood. Huius video Byrriam: servum is understood.

Praise and dispraise

The praise and dispraise of a thing can be expressed in different ways, but the most frequent is {n. p.} with the ablative or genitive, as Edouardum nostrum eximia spe, summaque virtute principem fac erudias. Vir nulla fide. Obscuri generis nebulo. Ingenui vultus puer, ingenuique pudoris.

Opus and usus

Opus and usus require the ablative, as autoritate tua nobis opus est. Gellius, pecuniam qua sibi nihil esset usus, ab iis quibus sciret usui esse, non accepit.

But opus is sometimes put instead of the adjective necessarius. Cicero, dux nobis et autor opus est. Likewise, dicis nummos mihi opus esse, ad apparatum triumphi. Terence, alia quae opus sunt, para.

Of the Construction of Adjectives

Genitive

Adjectives which mean desire, acquaintance, memory, and their contraries take the genitive, as est natura hominum novitatis avida.

Mens futuri praescia. Memor esto brevis aevi.

Imperitos rerum eductos libere in fraudem illicis.

Non sum animi dubius, sed devius aequi.

Graecarum literarum rudis.

Verbal adjectives in ax likewise take the genitive

	audax ingenii	utilium sagax
as	tempus edax rerum	propositi tenax
	virtus est vitiorum fugax	pecuniarum petax etc.

Moreover, a great number of adjectives connected through no fixed rule requires the genitive case, a quite wide variety of which have been collected by Linacre and Despauterius. You will make them familiar through constant readings.

Partitive nouns, some nouns used partitively some interrogative {n. p.} nouns, or some numeral nouns take the genitive, from which they also borrow their gender, as quorum alter te scientia augere potest, altera exemplis.

Utrum horum mavis accipe.

Quisquis fuit ille deorum.

An quisquam gentium est aeque miser, as ego? Dium promittere nemo auderet.

Tres fratrum. Quatuor iudicium.

Sapientum octavus quis fuerit, non dum constat.

Primus regum Romanorum fuit Romulus.

Nevertheless, in another sense they require the ablative case with a preposition, as primus ab Hercule. Tertius ab Aenea. But in another sense the dative, as nulli pietate secundus. However, they are also used with these prepositions, e, de, ex, inter, ante, as est deus e vobis alter.

Solus de superis.

Primus inter omnes.

Primus ibi ante omnes, magna comitante caterva.

The question and its answer will be of the same case and tense, as quarum rerum est nulla satietas? Divitiarum. Quid rerum nunc geritur in Anglia? Consulitur de religione.

This rule does not apply every time there is a question with cuius, cuia, cuium, as cuium pecus? Laniorum. Or else with a sentence of a different syntax, as furti ne accusas, an homicidi, an utroque? Finally, it does not apply when the question is to be replied with the possessives meus, tuus, suus etc., as cuius hic codex? Meus.

Comparative and superlative nouns taken as partitives require a genitive case, from which they get their gender. Comparatives create a comparison between two nouns, superlatives between more than two, as manuum fortior est dextera, digitorum medius est longissimus. However, they are taken partitively when they are expressed through e, ex, or inter, as Vergilius poetarum doctissimus, that is, ex poetis, or inter poetas.

When comparatives are expressed through quam, they take the ablative case, as vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum. {O} They also take another ablative which means the measure of the excess, as quanto doctior es, tanto te geras submissius.

Tanto, quanto, multo, longe, aetate, natu, are put to both degrees, as tanto pessimus omnium poeta, quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.

Nocturnae lucubrationes longe periculosissimae habentur.

Longe caeteris peritior es, sed non multo melior tamen.

Omne animi vitium, tanto conspectius in se crimen habet, quanto maior qui peccat habetur.

Maior et maximus natu. Maior et maximus aetate.

Dative

Adjectives which mean advantage, disadvantage, similarity, dissimilarity, delight, discontent, or relation to someone, take the dative case, as sis bonus o felixque tuis.

Turba gravis paci, placidaeque inimica quieti.

Est finitimus oratori poeta.

Qui color albus erat, nunc est contrarius albo.

Iucundus amicis, omnibus supplex.

Si facis ut patriae sit idoneus, utilis agro.

Here you will find the adjectives that are compounded with the preposition con, as contubernalis, commilito, conservus, cognatus, etc. Some of these adjectives that mean similarity also have the genitive, as quem metuis, par huius erat.

Patres aequum esse censent, nos iamiam a pueris, illico nasci senes, neque illarum affines esse rerum, quas fert adolescentia.

Domini similis es.

Mens conscia recti.

Praeterea regina, tui fidissima, dextra occidit ipsa, sua.

Communis, alienus, immunis serve different cases, as Cicero, commune animantium omnium est coniunctionis {n. p.} appetitus, procreandi causa. Mors omnibus communis hoc mihi tecum commune est. Sallust, non aliena consilii. Seneca, alienus ambitioni. Cicero, non alienus a Scevolae studiis. Ovid, vobis immunibus huius esse mali dabitur. Pliny, caprificus omnibus immunis est.

Immunes ab illis malis sumus.

Natus, commodus, incommodus, utilis, inutilis, vehemens, aptus, sometimes are also joined with accusative, as natus ad gloria.

Verbal adjectives in bilis, like participials in dus, take the passive.

The dative is added, as o mihi post nullos, multum memorande sodales, nulli penetrabilis astro, lucus erat.

Accusative

Size is indicated by adjectives in the accusative, as gnomon septem pedes longus, umbram non amplius quatuor pedes longam reddit. Sometimes also in the ablative, as fons latus pedibus tribus, altus triginta. And sometimes also in the genitive: Columella, in morem horti areas latas pedum denum, longas pedum quinquagenum facito.

Ablative

Adjectives which pertain to abundance or lack sometimes have the ablative, and sometimes the genitive, as amor et melle et felle est fecundissimus.

Dives agris, dives positis in fenore nummis.

Referunt se nocte minores, crura thymo plena.

Quae regio in terris, nostri non plena laboris?

Dives opum, dives pietati vestis et auri.

O curvae in terras animae et caelestium inanes.

Nouns expressing diversity come together with the ablative with a preposition, as alter ab illo. Aliud ab hoc. Diversus ab isto. {O. ii.}

Adjectives take the ablative when it means a cause, as pallidus ira. Incurvus senectute. Livida armis brachia. Trepidus morte futura.

The form or the mode of a thing is added to nouns in the ablative case, as facies miris modis pallida. Nomine grammaticus. Re Barbarus. Sum tibi natura parens, praeceptor consiliis. Troianus origine Caesar. Spe dives, re pauper. Syrus natione.

Dignus, indignus, praeditus, captus, contentus, extorris, are increased with an ablative case, as dignus es odio.

Qui filium haberem tali ingenio praeditum.

Atque oculis capti fodere cubilia talpae.

Sorte tua contentus abi.

Some of these sometimes require a genitive case, as militia est operis altera digna tui.

Discendam magnorum haud quamquam indignus aurorum.

Of the Construction of Pronouns

Mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, the genitives of primitive pronouns, are used when a passion is signified, as languet desiderio tui. Parsque tui latitat corpore clausa meo. Imago nostri.

Meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, are added when an action it is expressed, as favet desiderio tuo, imago nostra.

The genitives nostrum and vestrum follow distributives, partitives, comparatives, and superlatives, as unusquisque vestrum.

Nemo nostrum. Ne cui vestrum sit mirum.

Maior nostrum. Maximus natu vestrum.

These possessives meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, have these genitives after them, ipsius, solius, unius, duorum, trium and moreover omnium, plurium, paucorum, cuiusque {n. p.} and the genitive of participles, as ex tuo ipsius animo coniecturam feceris. Dico mea unius opera rempublica esse liberatam. Meum solius peccatum corrigi non potest. Noster duorum eventus ostendat, utra gens sit melior. In sua cuiusque laude praestantior. Nostra omnium memoria. Vestris paucorum respondet laudibus. Cum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis.

Sui and suus are reflexives, that is, they always reflected what precedes them in the same sentence, as nimium admirantur se. Parcit erroribus suis. Or they are connected through a copula, as magnopere Petrus rogat, ne se deseras. Cicero reminiscitur clientum suorum.

Among the pronouns, ipse represents the meaning of three persons, as ipse vidi, ipse loquere, ipse dixit.

And it is connected to nouns and equally to pronouns, as ipse ego, ipse ille, ipse Hercules.

Idem can also be added to all persons, as ego idem adsum. Idem has nuptias perge facere. Idem iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos.

These demonstratives hic, ille, iste, are distinguished thus:

Hic indicates somebody who is near to me; iste somebody who is near you; ille indicates somebody who is distant from both of us.

Ille is used when we refer to something for its excellence, as Alexander ille magnus. Iste is employed when we mention something with scorn, as istum aemulum quo ad poteris ab ea pellito.

When hic and ille refer to two nouns placed before, hic must be referred to the second and nearer one, ille must be referred to the first and most distant one, as Agricolae contrarium est pastoris propositum, ille quam maxime subacto et puro solo gaudet, hic novali graminosque, ille fructum e terra sperat, hic e pecore. {O. iii.}

Of the Construction of Verbs

Nominative after Verbs

Substantive verbs, as sum, forem, fio, existo, passive verbs for calling, as nominor, appellor, dicor, vocor, nuncupor, and similar ones, as scribor, salutor, habeor, existimor, and also verbs of action, as sedeo, dormio, incedo, curro require a nominative both before and after, as Deus est summus bonum. Perpusilli vocantur nani.

Fides, religionis nostrae fundamentum habetur.

Malus pastor dormit supinus.

Homo incedit erectus in caelum.

Finally, almost all verbs have the nominative of an adjective noun after them, as rex mandavit primus extirpari idololatriam. Pii orant taciti. Boni discunt seduli.

Likewise, the infinitive mood has the same case both before and after, especially when the optative verbs are next to their similar, as hypocrita cupit videri iustus, hypocrita cupit se videri iustum.

Malo dives esse quam haberi, malo me divitem esse quam haberi.

Natura beatis omnibus esse dedit, si quis cognoverit uti.

Nobis non licet esse tam disertis, vel disertos.

Expedit bonas esse vobis.

Quo mihi commisso non licet esse piam?

Genitive after Verbs

Sum requires a genitive every time it means possession, or to pertain to something, as pecus est Melibaei.

Adolescentis est, maiores natu ve reri.

Regum est parcere subiectis et debellare superbos. {n. p.}

These nominatives, meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum, humanum, belvinum, and similar ones make an exception as non est meum contra autoritatem senatus dicere. Eia haud vestrum est iracundos esse. Humanum est irasci. But here officium seems to be understood, whereas sometimes it is expressed, as ut tuum est officium, has bene ut adsimules nuptias.

Verbs of thought take the genitive, as plurimi passim fit pecunia.

Pudor parvi penditur.

Nihili, vel pro nihilo habentur literae.

Pluris opes nunc sunt, quam prisci temporis annis.

Aestimo takes either the genitive or the ablative, as non huius te aestimo. Magno ubique virtus aestimanda est.

Flocci, nauci, nihili, pili, assis, huius, teruncii are added especially to these verbs aestimo, pendo, facio, as ego illum flocci pendo. Nec huius facio, qui me pili aestimat. These are singular. Aequi boni consulo. Aequi boni facio, that is, in bonam accipio partem.

Verbs of accusation, condemnation, admonition, absolution, and similar ones that indicate a crime take the genitive, as qui alterum incusat probri, ipsum se intueri oportet.

Etiam sceleris condemnat generum suum.

Parce tuum vatem sceleris damnare cupido.

Admoneto illum pristinae fortunae.

Monachi, voti absoluti sunt.

Sometimes this genitive is turned into an ablative, both with or without a preposition, as si in me iniquus es iudex?

Condemnabo te eodem crimine.

Uxorem de pudicitia graviter accusavit.

Putavi ea de re admonendum esse te.

Uterque, nullus, alter, neuter, alius, ambo, and their superlative degree of this kind, are not placed with verbs unless they are in the ablative, as accusas furti, an stupri, an utroque? Sive de utroque? Ambobus? Vel de ambobus? Neutro vel de neutro. {n. p.} De plurimis simul accusaris.

Satago, misereor, miseresco take the genitive, as is rerum suarum satagit.

Oro miserere laborum.

Tantorum, miserere animi non digna ferentis.

Et generis miseresce tui.

And misereor and miseresco are found with a dative more rarely.

Seneca, huic succurro, huic misereor.

Boetius, dilige iure bonos et miseresce malis.

Reminiscor, obliviscor, memini have the genitive or accusative, as datae fidei reminiscitur. Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia cernere, oblivisci suorum. Faciam, ut meique et huius diei ac loci, semper memineris. Omnia quae curant, senes meminerunt. Memini de hac re, de armis, de te id est mentionem feci.

Potior is joined both to a genitive or an ablative, as Romani signorum et armorum potiti sunt.

Egressi optata potiuntur Troes arena.

Dative after Verbs

All the verbs meaning an increase take the dative of the thing that is increased in any way, as mihi istic nec seritur nec metitur.

Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.

Verbs of different kinds follow this rule.

First of all, verbs which mean advantage or disadvantage take the dative, as illa seges demum votis respondet avari Agricolae.

Non potes mihi nec commodare nec incommodare.

Validis incumbite remis.

Suam eruditionem tibi acceptam fert.

Among these, some are also expressed with the accusative, as unum studetis omnes, unum sentitis. {n. p.}

Si ea memorem quae ad ventris victum conducunt, mora est.

In haec studia incumbite.

Natura ne plus ad eloquentiam confert, an doctrina? Fessum, quies plurimum iuvat.

Verbs of comparison take the dative, as sic parvis componere magna solebam.

Fratri se et opibus et dignatione adaequavit.

Sometimes an ablative is added, as comparo Vergilium cum Homero.

Verbs related togiving and returning take the dative, as fortuna multis nimis dat, satis nulli.

Ingratus est, qui gratiam bene merenti non reponit.

These verbs have different constructions, as dono tibi munus.

Dono te munere.

Huic rei aliquid temporis impertias.

Plurima salute Parmenonem suum summum impertit Gnato.

Aspersit mihi labem. Aspersit me labe.

Instravit equo penulam, instravit equum penula.

Ut piget infido consuluisse viro id est dedisse consilium.

Rectoremque ratis de cunctis consulit astris id est petit consilium.

Pessime istuc in te atque in illum consulis.

Metuo, timeo, formido tibi and a te or de te that is sum sollicitus pro te.

Metuo, timeo, formido te, scilicet ne mihi noceas.

Verbs related to promising or assuring take the dative, as haec tibi promitto, ac recipio sanctissime esse observaturum. Aes alienum mihi numeravit.

Verbs related to ordering and announcing take the dative, as imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique.

Quid de quoque viro et cui dicas saepe caveto.

We say tempero, moderor tibi and te.

Refero tibi and ad te. Likewise,

Refero ad senatum, that is, propono, scribo, mitto tibi and ad te.

Do tibi literas, ut ad aliquem feras, do ad te literas that is mitto. {P}

Verbs related to trusting take the dative, as vacuis committere ventis, nil nisi laeve decet.

Mulieri ne credas, ne mortuae quidem.

Verbs related to obeying and opposing take the dative, as semper obtemperat pius filius patri.

Quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant, virtuti omnia parent.

Ipsum hunc orabo, huic supplicabo.

Venienti occurrite morbo.

Ignavis precibus fortuna repugnat.

But among them, some are coupled with other cases.

Ad amorem nihil potuit accedere.

Illud constat omnibus, seu inter omnes.

Haec fratri mecum non conveniunt.

Saevis inter se convenit ursis.

Ausculto tibi that is obedio. Ausculto te that is audio.

Adamas dissidet magneti, or cum magnete.

Certat illi, or cum illo.

Tu dic mecum quo pignore certes.

Verbs related to threat and rage take the a dative, as utrique mortem minatus est.

Adolescenti nihil est quod succenseat.

Sum and its compounds, except possum, require the dative, as rex pius est reipublicae ornamento.

Mihi nec obest, nec prodest.

Multa petentibus, desunt multa.

Verbs compounded with these prepositions require the dative:

Prae

Ego meis maioribus virtute praeluxi.

But praeeo meaning vinco, praecedo, praecurro, praevertor, is joined to the accusative.

Albo gallo ne manum admoliaris.

Con

Mulier quaedam ex Andro, commigravit huic viciniae. {n. p.}

Sub

Subolet iam uxori, quod ego machinor.

Ante

Iniquissimam pacem, iustissimo bello antefero.

Post

Omnes posthabui mihi res, ita ut par fuit.

Quum nemini obtrudi potest, itur ad me.

Impendet omnibus periculum.

Inter

Malleolus vitibus interserendus est.

A few of them sometimes change the dative into other cases, as praestat ingenio alius, alium.

Multos virorum anteit sapientia. In amore haec insunt vitia. Interdico tibi aqua et igni.

Est instead of habeo requires the dative, as velle suum cuique est, nec voto vivitur uno.

Est mihi namque domi pater, est iniusta noverca.

Suppetit is in this manner, as pauper enim non est, cui rerum suppetit usus.

Sum with many other verbs takes a double dative, as exitio est avidis mare nautis.

Speras tibi laudi fore, quod mihi vitio vertis.

Nemo sibi mimos accipere debet favori.

Suo sibi gladio hunc iugulavit. Here the dative is added for embellishment.

Accusative after Verbs

Transitive verbs of any kind, whether active, common, or deponent, requirethe accusative, as percontatorem fugito, nam garrulus idem est, {P. ii.} nec retinent patulae commissa fideliter aures.

Imprimis venerare deos. Aper agros depopulatur.

And neuter verbs also admit the accusative of a similar meaning, as tertiam aetatem hominum vivebat Nestor.

Longam incomitata videtur tre viam.

Duram servit servitutem.

Authors often change this accusative into an ablative, as diu videor vita vivere.

Ire recta via.

Morte obiit repentina.

And there are some verbs which have an accusative in a figurative sense, as nec vox hominem sonat, o dea certe.

Qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt.

Pastillos Rufillus olet, Gorgonius hircum.

Double Accusatives

Verbs related to asking, teaching, clothing take a double accusative, as tu modo posce deum veniam.

Dedocebo te istos mores.

Ridiculum est, te me admonere istud.

Induit se calceos, quos prius exuerat.

The verbs related to asking sometimes change one of the two accusatives into an ablative, as ipsum obtestemur, veniamque oremus ab ipso.

Suspitionem istam ex illis quaere.

The verbs related to clothing sometimes change one of the two accusatives into an ablative or dative, as induo te tunica, or tibi tunicam. Hoc te celavimus unum. Bassus noster, de hoc me celavit.

Ablative after Verbs

Any verb admits an ablative meaning instrument, cause, or mode of action. {n. p.}

Instrument

Daemona non armis, sed morte subegit Iesus.

Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurrit.

Hi iaculis, illi certant defendere saxis.

Cause

Gaudeo (ita me dii ament) gnati causa.

Invidus alterius rebus macrescit opimis.

Vehementer ira excanduit.

Mode

Mira celeritate rem peregit.

Dum vires animique sinunt, tolerate laborem,

Iam veniet tacito curva senecta pede.

Sometimes a preposition is added to the ablative of cause and mode, as Baccharis prae ebrietate.

Summa cum humanitate tractavit hominem.

A noun in the ablative case expressing the worth should be placed after those verbs, as teruncio seu vitiosa nuce non emerim.

Multo sanguine ac vulneribus ea victoria stetit.

Vili, paulo, minimo, magno, nimio, plurimo, dimidio, duplo are often added without substantives, as redime captum quam queas minimo. Vili venit triticum, constat parvo fames, magno fastidium.

These genitives, expressed without substantive, make an exception: tanti, quantipluris, minoris, tantivis, tantidem, quantilibet, quanticumque, as tanti eris aliis, quanti tibi fueris.

Non vendo pluris quam alii, fortasse etiam minoris.

Vix Priamus tanti totaque Troia fuit.

But if substantives are added, they are expressed in the ablative, as tanta mercede docuit, quanta hactenus nemo. {P. iii.}

Minori precio vendidi, quam emi.

Sometimes valeo also is found to be joined with an accusative, as denarii dicti, quod denos aeris valebant, quinarii quod quinos.

Verbs related to exceeding, fulfilling, oppressing and others of different kind take the ablative, as amore abundans Antipho.

Malo virum pecunia, quam pecuniam viro indigentem.

Sylla omnes suos divitiis explevit.

Hoc te crimine expedi.

Homines nequissimi, quibus te onerarunt mendaciis?

Ego hoc te fasce levabo.

Aliquem familiarem suo sermone participavit.

Some of them are sometimes expressed with the genitive, as quam dives nivei pecoris, quam lactis abundans.

Quasi tu huius indigeas patris.

Quid est, quod in hac causa defensionis egeat?

Implentur veteris Bacchi, pinguisque ferinae.

Postquam dextra fuit caedis saturata.

Omnes mihi labores leves fuere, praeterquam tui carendum quod erat.

Paternum servum sui participavit consilii.

Fungor, fruor, utor and similar verbs can be joined to ablative.

Qui adipisci veram gloriam volunt, iustitiae fungantur officiis.

Optimum est aliena frui insania.

In re mala, animo si bono utare, iuvat.

Aspice venturo laetentur ut omnia saeclo.

Qui sua victoria tam insolenter gloriarentur.

Destruit, aedificat, mutat quadrata rotundis.

Vescor carnibus.

Haud equidem tali me dignor honore.

Ut malis gaudeat alienis.

Exemplorum multitudine supersidendum est.

Regni eum societate muneravit.

Communicabo te semper mensa mea.

Prosequor te amore, laude, honore, etc., that is, amo, {n. p.} laudo, honoro.

Afficio te gaudio, supplicio, dolore etc., that is, exhilaro, punio, contristo.

Mereor is attached to the ablative with these adverbs, bene, male, melius, peius, optime, pessime, as de me nunquam bene meritus es.

Erasmus de lingua latina optime meritus est.

Catilina pessime de republica meruit.

Certain verbs related to receiving, distancing, and removing wish for an ablative with a preposition, as istuc a multis iam pridem audiveram.

A trepido vix abstinet ira magistro.

Nasci a principibus fortuitum est.

Procul abest ab urbe imperator.

Here the ablative is sometimes changed into a dative, as vivere si recte nescis, discede peritis.

Est virtus placitis abstinuisse bonis.

Heu fuge nate dea teque his (ait) eripe flammis.

The ablative meaning the measure of excess is added to the verbs that are strengthened by the comparison, as deforme existimabat, quos dignitate praestaret, ab iis virtutibus superari.

An ablative taken absolutely is added to any verb, as imperante Augusto natus est Christus, imperante Tyberio crucifixus.

Credo pudicitiam Saturno rege moratam in terris.

Nil desperandum Christo duce et auspice Christo.

Iam Maria, audito Christum venisse, cucurrit.

The ablative case is added to some verbs through a synecdoche and an accusative in poetry, as aegrotat animo magis quam corpore.

Candet dentes. Rubet capillos. {n. p.}

Nevertheless, some verbs are expressed in the genitive case, as absurde facis, qui angas te animi.

Exanimatus pendet animi.

Desipiebam mentis.

Plautus, discrucior animi, quia ab domo abeundum est mihi.

Divers cases, for many reasons, can be placed near the same verb, as dedit mihi vestem pignori, te presente, propria manu.

The ablative of the agent is added to passive verbs but, when a preposition is put before, sometimes also a dative can be added, as laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis.

Honesta bonis viris, non occulta petuntur.

The participles of which more often take the dative, as nulla tuarum audita mihi nec visa sororum.

Oblitusque meorum, obliviscendus et illis.

Passive verbs preserve the other cases that were of the active ones, as accusaris a me furti. Habeberis ludibrio. Dedoceberis a me istos mores. Privaberis magistratu.

The neuter passive vapulo, veneo, liceo, exulo, fio have a passive construction, as a praeceptore vapulabis.

Malo a cive spoliari quam ab hoste venire.

Quid fiet ab illo? Virtus parvo precio licet ab omnibus.

Cur a conviviis exulat philosophia?

Infinitive verbs are usually placed after certain verbs and certain adjectives, as iuvat usque morari et conferre gradum.

Dicere quae puduit, scribere iussit amor.

Vis fieri dives Pontice? Nil cupias.

Et erat tum dignus amari.

Audax omnia perpeti gens humana ruit, per veritum nefas.

Sometimes they are used absolutely and allegorically, as haeccine fieri flagitia?

Criminibus terrere novis, hinc spargere voces.

Et quaerere conscius arma that is terrebat, spergebat, {n. p.} quaerebat.

Of Gerunds

Gerunds and supines take the case of their own verbs, as efferor studio videndi parentes.

Utendum est aetate, cito pede labitur aetas.

Scitatum oracula Phaebi mittimus.

Gerunds in di depend on both some nouns and some adjectives, as et quae tanta fuit Romam tibi causa videndi?

Cecropias innatus apes amor urget habendi.

Aeneas celsa in puppi, iam certus eundi.

In poetry, an infinitive is put instead of a gerund, as studium quibus arva tueri. Peritus medicari.

Sometimes also the genitive of the plural is added, elegantly, to gerunds, as quum illorum videndi gratia me in forum contulissem.

Date crescendi copiam novarum.

Concessa est diripiendi pomorum atque obsoniorum licentia.

Gerunds in do depend on these prepositions

a	de	cum
ab	e	in	as
abs	ex	pro

Ignavi a discendo cito deterrentur.

Amor et amicitia, utrumque ab amando dictum est.

Ex defendendo quam ex accusando uberior gloria comparatur.

Consultatur de transeundo in Galliam.

Recte scribendi ratio cum loquendo iuncta est.

Pro vapulando ab hoste mercedem petam.

They are also used without preposition, as alitur vitium crescitque tegendo. {Q}

Scribendo disces scribere.

Dum

Gerunds in dum depend on these prepositions

	inter		ob
	ante		propter
	ad

Inter cenandum hilares este.

Ante damnandum ingentes tollent animos.

Locus ad agendum amplissimus.

Ob absolvendum munus ne acceperis.

Veni propter te redimendum.

When necessity is implied , they are used without the preposition and with the added verb est, as orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano.

Vigilandum est ei qui cupit vincere.

Gerunds are Changed into Nouns

Gerunds are changed into nouns adjectives, as tantus amor florum, et generandi gloria mellis.

Ad accusandos homines duci praemio, proximum latrocinio est.

Cur adeo delectaris criminibus inferendis?

Of Supines

Tum

The first supine has an active meaning and follows a verb or a participle meaning motions towards a place, as spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur in ipsae.

Milites sunt missi speculatum arcem.

However, these sentences do venum, do filiam nuptum imply a hidden movement.

But this supine in neuter passive verbs and with the infinitive in iri has a passive meaning, as coctum ego non vapulatum, dudum conductus sum. Postquam audierat non datum iri uxorem {n. p.} filio. Poets say eo visere, vado videre.

The supine is also put absolutely with verb est, as ilicet peristi. Itum est in viscera terrae. Cessatum est satis.

The second supine has a passive meaning and follows nouns adjectives, as sum extra noxam, sed non est facile purgatu.

Quod factu foedum est, idem est dictu turpe.

Qui pecunia non movetur, hunc dignum spectatur arbitramur. But in these sentences, surgit cubitu and redit venatu, cubitu and venatu need to be considered as nouns rather than supines.

Of Time and Place

Time

Nouns which mean a part of time are more frequently used in the ablative, rarely in the accusative. Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit. Nocte latent mendae.

Id tempus creatus est consul.

But nouns which indicate a duration of time are expressed in the accusative, and sometimes in the ablative, as hic iam ter centum totos regnabitur annos.

Noctes atque dies patet atri ianua Ditis.

Hic tamen hac mecum poteris requiescere nocte.

Imperavit triennio et decem mensibus, octoque diebus.

Dicimus etiam. In paucis diebus, de die, de nocte.

Promitto in diem. Commodo in mensem. Annos ad quinquaginta natus. Per tres annos studui. Puer id aetatis. Non plus triduum or triduo. Tertio, or ad tertium calendas or calendarum.

Distance of a place

The distance of a place is expressed in the accusative and sometimes in the ablative, as die quibus in terris (et eris mihi magnus Apollo.) {Q. ii.}

Treis pateat caeli spatium, non amplius ulnas.

Iam mille passus processeram. Abest bidui, space is left out. Abest ab urbe quingentis passuum millibus.

Appellatives of Places

Nouns appellatives and nouns of the major places are commonly added with a preposition to verbs that mean “in a place”, “to a place”, “from a place”, or “through a place”, as in foro versatur. Meruit sub rege in Gallia.

Ad templum non aequae palladis ibant.

Iliades.

Legantur in Hispaniam maiores natu nobiles.

E Sicilia decedens Rhodum veni.

Per mare ibis ad Indos.

Every verb admits the genitive of the proper name of a place in which an action takes place, as long as it is of the first or second declension and of singular number. Quid Romae faciam? Mentiri nescio. Samia mihi mater fuit: ea habitabat Rhodi.

These genitives, humi, domi, militiae, belli are used instead of proper names, as domi bellique simul viximus.

Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi.

Domi does not accept other genitives with itself than meae, tuae, suae, nostrae, vestrae, alienae, as versor domi meae, non alienae.

But only if the proper name of a place is of plural number, or of the third declension, it is put in the dative or ablative, as Colchus an Assyrius, Thebis nutritus, an Argis.

Suetonius, Lentulus Getulicus Tiburi genitum scribit.

Livy, neglectum Anxuri praesidium.

Cicero, cum una sola legione fuit Carthagini.

Romae Tibur amem ventosus, Tibure Romam.

Cicero, cum tu Narbone mensas hospitum convomeres.

Idem. Commendo tibi domum eius, quae est Sycione.

So we use ruri or rure in the ablative, as ruri fere se continet. Rure paterno est sibi far modicum. {n. p.}

To a Places

The proper name of a place is added in the accusative to verbs that imply motion towards a place, as concessi Cantabrigiam ad capiendum ingenii cultum. Eo Londinum ad merces emendas. Ad hunc modum utimur rus et domus, ut ego rus ibo. Ite domum saturae, venit hesperum, ite capellae.

From a Place, Through a Place

The proper name of a place is added in the ablative to verbs that imply motion from a place or through a place, as nisi ante Roma profectus esses, nunc eam relinqueres.

Eboraco sive per Eboracum sum facturus iter.

Domus and rus are used in the same way, as nuper exiit domo. Timeo ne pater rure redierit.

On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs

Genitive

These three impersonal verbs, interest, refert and est, are joined to any genitive except those of mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra and cuia, as interest magistratus tueri bonos, animadvertere in malos.

Refert multum Christianae reipublicae episcopos doctos et pios esse.

Prudentis est multa dissimulare.

Tua refert teipsum nosse.

Ea caedes crimini potissimum datur ei, cuia interfuit, non ei, cuia nihil interfuit.

These genitives are also added tanti, quanti, magni, parvi, quanticumque, tantidem, as magni refert, quibuscum vixeris. Tanti refert honesta agere. Vestra parvi interest. Et interest ad laudem meam. {Q. iii.}

Dative

These impersonal verbs are expressed with the dative case: accidit, certum est, contingit, constat, confert, competit, conducit, convenit, displicet, dolet, expedit, evenit, liquet, libet, licet, nocet, obest, prodest, praestat, patet, stat, placet, restat, benefit, malefit, statisfit, superest, sufficit, vacat, as convenit mihi tecum.

Emori per virtutem mihi praestat, quam per dedecus vivere.

Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse Iovi.

Dolet dictum imprudenti adolescenti et libero, subauditur esse.

A noverca malefit privignis.

A deo nobis benefit. Stat casus renovare omnes.

Accusative

These impersonal verbs require an accusative case: iuvat, decet, dedecet, delectat, oportet, as me iuvat ire per altum. Uxorem aedes curare decet.

Dedecet viros muliebriter rixari.

Cato, patrem familias vendacem, non emacem esse oportet.

The preposition ad is added to these: attinet, pertinet, spectat, as me ne vis dicere quod ad te attinet?

Spectat ad omnes bene vivere.

Quintilian, pertinet in utramque partem.

Accusative with the Genitive

The accusative with the genitive is added to these impersonal verbs:poenitet, taedet, miseret, miserescit, pudet, piget, as Cicero, si ad centesimum vixisset annum, senectutis cum suae non poeniteret.

Taedet animam meam vitae meae.

Aliorum te miseret, tui nec te miseret, nec pudet.

Fratris me quidem pudet pigetque.

Some impersonal verbs sometimes return to being personal, {n. p.} as non omnes arbusta iuvant.

Nanque decent animos mollia regna tuos.

Agricolam arbor ad frugem perducta delectat.

Nemo miserorum commiserescit.

Te non pudet istud? Non te haec pudent?

Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, solet and potest, joined to impersonal verbs, take up the impersonal form, as ubi primum coeperat non convenire, quaestio oriebatur.

Taedere solet avaros impendii. Desinit illum studii taedere. Sacerdotem inscitiae pudere debet.

Pervenire ad summum, nisi ex principiis non potest.

An impersonal verb of the passive voice obtains a similar case with personal passives, as ab hostibus constanter pugnatur.

But this case sometimes is not expressed, as strato discumbitur ostro.

An impersonal verb of the passive voice can be accepted indifferently instead of every person of both numbers, as statur, that is, sto, stas, stamus, statis, stant.

Of the Construction of Participles

Participles take the case of verbs from which they are derived, as duplices tendens ad sidera palmas, talia voce refert.

Ubera lacte domum referent distenta capellae.

Diligendus ab omnibus. Although usually this is in dative, as restat Chremes qui mihi exorandus est.

Genitive

When participles become nouns, they require a genitive, as alieni appetens. Sui profusus. Cupientissimus tui.

Inexpertus belli. Indoctus pilae. {n. p.}

Accusative

Exosus, perosus, pertaesus, are carried out in the accusative, as immundam segnitiem perosae. Astronomus exosus ad unum mulieres. Pertaesus ignaviam suam.

Exosus and perosus are also found with the dative case, as Germani Romanis perosi sunt. Exosus deo et sanctis.

Ablative

Natus, prognatus, satus, cretus, creatus, ortus, editus are carried out in the ablative, as bona bonis prognata. Sate sanguine dium.

Quo sanguine cretus. Venus orta mari, mare.

Praestet eunti. Terra editus.

Of the Construction of Adverbs

Nominative

These demonstrative adverbs en and ecce are most frequently joined with the nominative, very rarely with the accusative.

En Priamus, sunt hic etiam sua praemia laudi.

Ecce tibi status noster. En quatuor aras.

Ecce duas tibi Daphni, duoque altaria Phoebo.

The en of reproach is only tied to the accusative, as en animum et mentem. En habitum.

Genitive

Some adverbs of place, time, and quantity, take the genitive after themselves.

Of Place

As ubi, ubinam, nusquam, eo, longe, quo, ubius, huccine, as ubi gentium? Quo terrarum abiit?

Nusquam loci invenitur. Eo impudentiae ventum est.

Of Time {n. p.}

As nunc, tunc, interea, pridie, postridie, as nihil tunc temporis amplius quam flere poteram.

Pridie eius diei pugnam inierunt.

Pridie calendarum, seu calendas.

Of Quantity

As parum, satis, abunde, etc.

Satis loquentiae, sapientiae parum.

Abunde fabularum audivimus.

Instar means comparison, measure, or similarity, as instar montis equum divina Palladis arte edificant.

Mittitur Philippus solus, in quo instar omnium auxiliorum erat.

Sed scelus hoc meriti pundus et instar habet.

Here the preposition ad is sometimes added, as vallis ad instar castrorum clauditur.

Populus Romanorum e parva origine, ad tantae magnitudinis instar emicuit.

Ah minime gentium, non faciam. Here the genitive is added for embellishment.

Dative

Some adverbs admit the noun from which they are derived in the dative, as venit obviam illi. Nam obvius illi dicitur.

Canit similiter huic, et sibi inutiliter vivit.

Propinquius tibi sedet quam mihi.

These datives are adverbials, tempori, luci, vesperi, as tempori venit, quod omnium rerum est primum.

Luci occidit hominem. Vidi ad vos afferri vesperi.

Accusative

There are some adverbs which admit the accusative case of the prepositions from which they are made, as castra propius urbem moventur. {R}

Proximem Hyspaniam sunt Mauri.

Cedo takes the accusative of the thing that demands to be exhibited, as cedo quemvis arbitrum.

Ablative

Adverbs related to diversity, aliter and secus, and these two ante and post, are often found with the ablative, as multo aliter, paulo secus, multo ante, longe secus.

Et longo post tempore venit, shortly after.

Adverbs at the comparative and superlative degree admit the case of the voice from which they are derived, as accessi propius illo. Optime omnium dixit.

Legimus propius ad deos, et propius a terris.

Plus is found to be added to the nominative, accusative, and ablative, as plus quinquaginta hominum ceciderunt.

Aberat acies paulo plus quingentos passus.

Dies triginta, aut plus eo, in navi fui.

Adverbs that Agree with Verbal Moods.

The adverbs of time ubi, postquam and quum are added sometimes to verbs in the indicative mood, and sometimes in the subjunctive, as haec ubi dicta dedit.

Ubi nos laverimus, si voles, lavato.

Quum faciam vitula, pro frugibus ipse venito.

Quum canerem reges et praelia, Cynthius aurem vellit.

Donec

When donec means quamdiu, it takes the indicative, as donec eram sospes. When it means quousque, it requires sometimes the indicative, sometimes the subjunctive, as cogere donec oves stabulis, numerumque iussit. Columella. Donec ea aqua, quam adieceris, decocta sit.

Dum

Dum, when it refers to an unfinished present thing or when it means quamdiu, {n. p.} takes the indicative mood, as dum apparatur virgo in conclavi.

Ego te meum dici tantisper volo: dum quod te dignum est, facis.

Dum, when it means dummodo, is joined toa potential or a subjunctive mood, as dum prosim tibi. Dum ne ab hoc me falli comperiam. When it means donec, it is only joined to the subjunctive, as tertia dum latio regnantem videri aestas.

Quoad

Quoad, when it means quamdiu, is followed by both the indicative and the subjunctive. When it means donec, only to subjunctive verbs, as quoad expectas contubernalem?

Quoad possem, et liceret, ab eius latere numquam discederem.

Omnia integra servabo, quoad exercitus huc mittatur.

Simulac etc

Simulac and simulat are followed by the indicative and subjunctive.

Simulac belli patiens erat.

Simulatque adoleverit aetas.

Quemadmodum etc

Quemadmodum, ut, utcunque, sicut admit both moods, as ut salutabis, ita et resalutaberis.

Ut sementem feceris, ita et metes.

Ut meaning postquam is followed by the indicative, as ut ventum est in urbem.

Quasi etc

Quasi, ceu, tamquam, perinde and si, but not secus and si, when they have a proper verb, are followed by a subjunctive, as tamquam feceris ipse aliquid.

Quasi non norimus nos inter nos.

Otherwise, they couple with similar cases, as novi hominem tamquam te. Arridet mihi quasi amico.

Ne related to prohibition is put before the imperative or subjunctive, {R. ii.} as ne saevi magna sacerdos.

Hic nebulo magnus est, ne metuas.

Ne meaning non serves other moods.

Adverbs with a case close to them are turned into prepositions, as cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator.

Of the Construction of Conjunctions

Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions with these four quam, nisi, praeterquam, an, usually connect similar cases; unless it is inconsistent with any specific rule of case construction, as Socrates docuit Xenophontem et Platonem.

Utinam calidus esses aut frigidus. Est minor natu quam tu. Nemini placet nisi, vel praeterquam sibi.

Emi librum centussi et pluris.

Vixi Romae et Venetiis.

Horace, in Meti descendat iudicis aures et patris et nostras.

Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions sometimes connect similar moods and tenses, as recto stat corpore, despicitque terras.

Nisi me lactasses amantem, et vana spe produceres.

Tibi gratias egi, et te aliquando collaudare possum.

Etsi etc

Etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, quanquam require the indicative mood at the beginning of a sentence , the subjunctive in the middle.

Quamvis and licet more frequently take the subjunctive, as etsi nihil novi afferebatur.

Quanquam animus meminisse horret.

Quamvis Elysios miretur Graecia campos.

Ipse licet venias Musis comitatus Homere.

Ni, nisi etc

Ni, nisi, si, siquidem, quod, quia, quam, postquam, posteaquam, ubi {n. p.} instead of postquam, nunquam, priusquam, are followed by both the indicative and the subjunctive, as quod redieris incolumis gaudeo.

Castigo te non quod odio habeam, sed quod amem.

Aliud honestum iudicas, quam philosophi statuant.

Gravius accusas, quam patitur tua consuetudo.

Si is joined to both moods but, when it means quamvis, it is only followed by the subjunctive, as redeam? Non, si me obsecret. Si quis only wants indicative, as si quis adest.

Quando etc

Quando, quandoquidem, quoniam are joined to the indicative, as dicite quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba.

Quoniam mihi non credis, ipse facito periculum.

Quippe

Quippe, when it has its own verb, takes the indicative, as danda est huic venia, quippe aegrotat.

If you add qui, it admits both moods, as non est huic danda venia, quippe qui iam bis peieravit or peieraverit.

Qui

When qui has the control of the case, it requires the subjunctive, as stultus es qui huic credas.

Cum

Cum, when it means quamvis, quandoquidem or quoniam, is always followed by the subjunctive, as nos cum praecipi nihil posse dicamus, tamen aliis de rebus disserere solemus.

Cum sis officiis Gradive virilibus aptus.

Cum, tum

Cum and tum, as well as tum repeated twice, are combined in similar ways.

Est autem in cum quiddam minus, in tum quiddam maius.

Amplectitur cum eruditos omnes, tum in primis Marcellum.

Odit tum litteras tum virtutem. {R. iii.}

Ne, an, num

The interrogative particles ne, an, num prefer the indicative, as ut superat ne et vestitur aura aetherea?

But when they are used to express doubt or in an infinitive, they require the subjunctive, as vise num redierit.

Nihil refert feceris ne, an persuaseris.

Ut as a conjunction to express cause or purpose, and ut meaning ne non, after verbs of fear, is joined either to the potential or to the subjunctive mood, as filium perduxere illuc secum, ut una esset meum. Te oro Dave ut redeam iam in viam. Metuo ut substet hospes. Concessive ut, and ut meaning utpote is followed by the subjunctive, as ut omnia contingant quae volo, levari non possum.

Non est tibi fidendum, ut qui toties fefelleris.

Ut qui solus relictus fueris.

Ut instead of postquam, quemadmodum or sicut, and interrogative ut is followed by the indicative, as ut ab urbe discesi, nullam intermisi diem, quin scriberem.

Tu tamen has nuptias perge facere, ut facis.

Credo, ut est dementia. Ut valet? Ut meminit nostri?

Of the Construction of Prepositions

An understood preposition sometimes causes an ablative to be added, as habeo te loco parentis. Apparvit illi humana facie. Discessit magistratu.

A preposition sometimes takes in a compound the same case that it took when it was not compounded, as nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem.

Emoti procumbunt cardine postes.

Detrudunt naves scopulo.

Verbs compounded with a, ab, ad, con, de, e, ex, in sometimes require the same prepositions with their case when they are not {n. p.}compunded, as abstinuerunt a viris. Amicos advocabo ad hanc rem. Cum legibus conferemus.

Detrahere de tua fama nunquam cogitavi. Cum ex insidiis evaseris. Postquam excessit ex ephebis.

In rempublicam cogitatione curaque incumbe.

In, when it means erga, contra, and ad, takes the accusative case, as accipit in Teucros animum, mentemque benignam.

Quid meus Aeneas in te committere tantum, quid Troes potuere?

Quo te Meri pedes? An quo via ducit, in urbem?

Besides, in is joined to the accusative, every time it means division, alteration, or increase of something during time, as est locus in parteis, ubi se via findit in ambas.

Versa est in cineres sospite Troia viro.

Amor crescit in horas.

When in is related to actions in a place, it requires the ablative, as aurum in igni spectatur.

Sub

Sub, when it means ad, per and ante, is followed by the accusative, as sub umbram properemus. Legati fere sub id tempus, ad res repetendas missi, that is per id tempus.

Sub noctem cura recursat that is ante, or instante nocte.

It admits also the ablative, as quicquid sub terra est in apricum proferet aetas.

Sub nocte silenti, that is in nocte silenti.

Super

Super meaning ultra is joined to the accusative, as super Garamantas, et Indos proferet imperium.

When it means de and in, it is joined to the ablative, as multus super ea re, variusque rumor. Fronde super viridi.

Subter

In the ancient authors subter is joined to both cases with the same meaning, as pugnatum est super, subterque tetras. Vergil, {n. p.} omnes ferre libet subter densa testudine casus.

Tenus

Tenus takes the ablative case both singular and plural, as pube tenus. Pectoribus tenus, but the genitive only in the plural, as crurum tenus.

When prepositions take a case, they become adverbs, as longo post tempore venit.

Pone subit coniunx. Coram quem quaeritis adsum.

Of the Construction of Interjections

Interjections are often used absolutely and without a case.

Spem gregis ah silice in nuda connixa reliquit.

Quae malum dementia?

O as an exclamation is joined to the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative, as o sestus dies hominis.

O fortunatos nimium, bona si sua norint, agricolas.

O formose puer, nimium ne crede colori.

Heu, pro

Heu and pro are followed sometimes by the nominative and sometimes by the accusative.

Heu pietas. Heu prisca fides.

Heu stirpem invisam.

Pro Iupiter, tu homo adiges me ad insaniam.

Pro deum atque hominum fidem.

Pro sancte Iupiter. For Plautum.

Hei, veh

Hei and veh are added to the dative case, as hei mihi, quod nullis amor est medicabilis herbis.

Veh misero mihi, quanta de spe decidit? {n. p.}

Of Figures

A figure is a masterfully modified form of speech, only two kinds of which will be discussed here, that is, word figures and figures of speech .

Word Figures

	prothesis	syncope
There are six word figures	aphaeresis	paragoge
	epenthesis	apocope

The prothesis is the addition of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word, as gnatus for natus. Tetuli for tuli.

Aphaeresis is the removal of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word, as ruit pro eruit. Temnere pro contemnere.

Epenthesis is the addition of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word, as to relliquias, relligio, an l is added. Induperatorem for imperatorem.

Syncope is the removal of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word, as abiit, petiit, dixti, repostum, etc.

Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable at the end of a word, as dicier for dici.

Apocope is the removal of a letter or syllable at the end of a word, as peculi for peculii. Dixtin’ for dixtine. {S}

Construction Figures

There are eight construction figures

	apposition		zeugma
	evocation		synthesis
	syllepsis		antiptosis
	prolepsis		synecdoche

Apposition

An apposition is the combination of two nouns of the same case, one of which announces the other, as flumen Rhenus. An apposition can also be made of several nouns, as Marcus Tullius Cicero. Sometimes the authors put nouns in different cases, almost as if they were related to different nouns, as urbs Pataurii. Urbs Antiochiae.

In an apposition we do not always find nouns of the same gender or number, as urbs Athenae.

In me turba ruunt luxoriosa proci.

Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent.

An apposition can be made by three kinds of denomination:

To specify something more general, as Urbs Roma. Animal equus.

To clear misunderstandings, as Taurus mons Asiae. Lupus piscis.

To attribute qualities, as Erasmus vir exactissimo iudicio. Nireus adolescens insigni forma. Timotheus homo incredibili fortuna.

Evocation

An evocation is when the third person is brought back continuatively to the first or second, as {n. p.} ego Cicero oro, vos auditores acclamatis.

It must be observed that the verb always agrees with the evoking person, as ego pauper laboro. Tu dives ludis.

In an evocation the evoking and evoked persons sometimes have a different number, either because the evoked person lacks the singular, as ego tuae delitiae istuc veniam? Or because it is a collective noun, as magna pars studiosorum amoenitates quaerimus, hic subauditur nos. Or finally when it is a distributive noun, as in magnis rebus laesus uterque sumus, subintelligitur nos.

An evocation can also be implicit, when the evoking person is understood, as sum pius Aeneas.

Populus superamur ab uno, subauditur nos.

Syllepsis

Syllepsis, or conceptio, is when we join a less preponderant element together with a more preponderant one, thanks to whose rule you will understand the following examples:

The sentence joint through the conjunctions et, nec, neque, and cum, meaning et, requires the received verb, adjective, or relative in the plural, because that verb, or adjective, or relative will agree in gender and person with the most preponderant noun, as quin tu et soror facitis?

Ego et mater miseri perimus.

Tu et uxor qui adfuistis, testes estote.

Syllepsis of Persons

The first person is more preponderant than the second or third, and the second is more preponderant than the third, as ego et pater sumus in tuto. {S. ii.}

Tu atque frater estis in periculo.

Neque ego neque tu sapimus.

Rhemo cum fratre Quirinus iura dabant.

However, cum prefers a singular verb, as tu quid ego et populus mecum desideret, audi.

Syllepsis of Genders

The masculine gender is more preponderant than the feminine or neuter ones, and the feminine is more preponderant that the neuter, as rex et regina beati.

Calibs et aurum sunt in fornace probati.

Per vim et leges sunt plebiscita coacta.

But when nouns mean inanimate things, the more common adjective or relative is put in the neuter gender, as cum Daphnidis arcum registi et calamos, quae tu perverse Menalca,

Et cum vidisti puero donata, dolebas.

Ira et aegritudo permista sunt.

Virga tua et baculus tuus, ipsa me consolata sunt.

There is also an implicit kind of syllepsis, as impliciti laqueis nudus uterque iacet.

Subaudi Mars et Venus.

Prolepsis

Prolepsis, or praesumptio, is a brief summary statement of matters. Moreover it takes place when the recapitulation – that is, the whole matter – is properly linked to the verb or the adjective, then some parts of the whole matter are connected back to that same verb or adjective, with which, however, they barely agree, as duae aquilae volaverunt, haec ab oriente, illa ab occidente. The recapitulation or whole matter is an expression of the plural number, as duae aquilae, or equivalent to the plural, as Corydon et Thyrsis. The copulative sentence is actually equivalent to the plural, as {n. p.} compulerantque greges, Corydon et Thyrsis in unum, Thyrsis oves, Corydon distentas lacte capellas.

The recapitulation is otherwise a collective noun, as populus vivit, alii in penuria, alii in deliciis.

Prolepsis can also be implicit, when something is not expressed, as alterius lactantes lumina vultus.

Deest alter in alterius.

Diomedes talks of prolepsis every time we anticipate something that is said later, as Lavinia venit littora. Lavinium enim nondum erat quum Aeneas veniret in Italiam.

Zeugma

Zeugma takes place when we bring back a single verb or adjective that usually agree with a closer element to different ones, agreeing with the former rightfully, with the latter to complete the number, as nihil te nocturnum praesidium palatii, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt? Here moverunt is clearly brought back to ora vultusque, but it is connected to the rest to complete the number. We should actually understand praesidium movit, vigiliae moverunt, timor populi movit, bonorum concursus movit, habendi senatus locus movit.

However, when there is a comparison or similitude, the verb or the adjective agrees with the most distant word, as ego sicut fenum arui. Hoc ille ita prudenter atque ego, fecisset.

Also through nisi, as talem filium nulla nisi tu pareret.

It may be that sometimes poets are wont to speak differently, as nihil hic nisi carmina desunt.

Quid nisi secretae laeserunt Phyllida silvae?

Three kinds of zeugma can take place:

In person, as ego et tu studes. {S. iii.}

In gender, as maritus et uxor est irata.

In number, as hic illius arma, hic currus fuit.

Sometimes the verb or adjective is put at the beginning, and it is called protozeugma, as dormio ego et tu.

Sometimes in the middle, and it is called mesozeugma, as ego dormio et tu.

Sometimes at the end, and it is called hypozeugma, as ego et tu dormis.

Synthesis

Synthesis is a word that agrees according to its meaning and not to its grammatical voice, as pars in frusta secant. Gens armati.

However, sometimes synthesis is used regarding gender to distinguish this latter or the sex, as anser feta, elephantus gravida.

Or to complete, as Praeneste sub ipsa scilicet urbe.

Centauro in magna scilicet navi.

Sometimes only in number, as turba ruunt. Aperite aliquis ostium.

Other times indeed in both gender and number at the same time, as pars mersi tenuere ratem. Hic manus ob patriam pugnando vulnera passi.

Antiptosis

Antiptosis is the use of one case for another, and sometimes not without refinement, as urbem quam statuo vestra est.

Populo ut placerent quas fecisset fabulas.

Sermonem quem audistis, non est meus.

Eius non venit in mentem, instead of id.

Aristotelis libri sunt omne genus elegantiae referti pro omnis generis. So id genus, quod genus, etc. {n. p.}

Id ne estis authores mihi? Instead of eius.

However, sometimes there is a stronger antiptosis, as salve primus omnium parens patriae appellate, instead of prime.

Habet duos gladios, quibus altero te occisurum minatur, altero villicum.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is when something that refers only to a part is attributed to a the whole, as Aethiops albus dentes.

Here ‘white’, which only applies to teeth, is attributed also to the Ethiopians.

By means of synecdoche adjective nouns that indicate a quality, as well as passive and neuter verbs that indicate a passion can take the accusative or the ablative of place which refers to that quality or passion, as aeger pedes or pedibus.

Saucius frontem or fronte.

Doleo caput or capite.

Redimitus tempora lauro.

Truncatus membra bipenni.

Effusas laniata comas, contusaque pectus.

In fact, these are Greek sentences.

Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus.

Cetera similes, uno differunt.

If there is anyone who wants to learn about such elegant choices in the construction of figures, he should read Thomas Linacre who discusses clearly and at length about ellipsis, pleonasm, and enallage.

{n. p.}

Of Prosody

Prosody teaches the right pronunciation of words.

It is called accentus in Latin.

		accent
But prosody is divided in		breathing
		prosodic time

The accent follows a rule whereby a syllable is raised or lowered in the sentence.

		acute
There are three kinds of accent		grave
		circumflex

The acute accent is an oblique mark rising towards the right, like ´ .

The grave accent is an oblique mark lowering towards the right, like ` .

The circumflex accent is somehow composed of both, like ^ .

We should also add the apostrophe, which a sort of semicircle put after a letter on top, like ’.

it is clear that the last vowel of the word is missing due to this mark, as tanton’ me crimine dignum dixisti? Pro tanto ne.

There are two kinds of breathing		rough
		smooth

Rough breathing, whereby the syllable is uttered with aspiration, as homo, honor.

Smooth breathing, whereby the syllable is uttered without an aspiration, as amo, onus.

Rules of the Accents

First

A monosyllabic word is short and it takes an acute accent when it is in a long position, as mél, fél, párs, páx, or takes a circumflex accent when it is long by nature, as spês, flôs, sôl, thûs, rûs. {n. p.}

Second

In a disyllabic word, if the first syllable is long and the second is short, the first syllable takes a circumflex accent, as lûna, mûsa.

In the other cases, they have an acute accent, as cítus, látus, sólers.

Third

A polysyllabic word, if the second last syllable is long, takes an acute accent on that syllable, as libértas, penátes. But if the second last syllable is short, the acute accent falls on the third last one, as dóminus, póntifex.

Compounds of facio make an exception, for they have an acute accent on the second last syllable, as benefácis, malefácis, calefácit, frigefácit,

But if the second last syllable is long and the last one is short, the second last syllable has a circumflex accent, as Românus, amâtor.

Compounds of fis and fit have an acute accent on the last syllable, as madefís, calefít, benefít, satisfít.

Appendix

Because nowadays, due to general ignorance, the circumflex accent is barely distinguished from the acute one in its extension, grammarians confused the circumflex with the acute.

Fourth

There are five things that break the rules of accents.

Distinction

Distinction moves the accent, as the adverb uná has an acute accent on the last letter, so that it is not mistaken for a noun. Thus eó, aliquó, alió, continuó, seduló, porró, forté, quá, siquá, aliquá, nequá, illó, falsó, citó, feré, plané, and others of this kind, putá meaning sicut, poné, corám, circmúm, aliás, palám, ergó when it is a conjunction but, when ergô expresses the cause of something, it has a circumflex accent, as illius ergô venimus.

Thus, because of distinction, the third to last syllable is suspended in these words déinde, próinde, périnde, alíquando, síquando, néquamdo, {T} húccusque, álonge, délonge, déinceps, dúntaxat, déorsum, quápropter, quínimmo, enímvero, propémodum, ádmodum, áffabre, intereáloci, nihilóminus, paulóminus, when they are not of other declensions, as instead are púbe, ténus, crúrum, ténus, and when they are not compounds, like háctenus, quátenus, and others of this kind.

Transposition

Transposition reverses the accent. This is what happens in prepositions, which take a grave accent when they are put after, as transtra per et remos. Te penes imperium.

Attraction

Attraction changes the accent, when a conjunction inclinativa, i.e. used to decline, follows some nouns, as que, ne, ve.

In fact these particles attract the accent to the preceding syllables, which take an acute one, as lumináque laurúsque dei.

But where there is an evident composition, the accent does not change, as dénique, útique, ítaque, úndique, híccine, and huiusmodi, yet ubíque keeps the accent of his prosodic time.

Truncation

Truncation shifts the accent when words are cut through syncope or apocope. Then, in fact, they keep the accent of the uncut word, as Vergíli, Valéri, Mercúri.

Likewise, some syncopated nouns and pronouns take a circumflex accent on the last syllable, as Arpinâs, Ravennâs, nostrâs, vestrâs, cuiâs, from the previous words Ravennâtis, nostrâtis, etc.

And so do donêc from donecum; hûc, illûc, istûc, adhûc, etc., instead of hûcce, illûcce etc.; and compounds from dîc, dûc, fâc, as benedîc, redúc, calefác. {n. p.}

Idiom

An idiom is a characteristic of a language: it changes the accent when Greek words, if they have come to us uncut, preserve their accent, as simóis, períphas that take an acute accent on the second to last syllable. On the contrary, when they are turned into Latin words, the accent falls on the third to last syllable, because they abbreviate the second to last one. However, they actually become Latin words and preserve the Latin accent, as georgica, bucolica, which have an acute accent on the third to last syllable in Greek but here have it on the last one.

Likewise, comoedia, tragoedia, sophia, symphonia take the accent on the third to last syllable, although they had it on the second to last in their language.

Moreover, if we do not know the proper accent of a foreign word, it would be much safer to utter it according to the Latin accent.

Common syllables in a prose speech are always abbreviated, as célebris, cáthedra, medíocris.

Of the Structure of Verse

So far I have discussed accents and breathings, now I will add a few things on the prosodic time of syllables and on the structure of verses.

Prosodic time is the measure of the pronunciation of a syllable.

A short syllable has one time, but a long one has two.

Short time is marked like this ◡.

While the long like this ⎯, as tērră ⎯ ◡.

Feet are made of syllables distributed in the right order.

And a foot is the arrangement of two or more syllables according to a specific structure of prosodic times.

Feet can be either disyllable or trisyllable.

However, to discuss tetrasyllables is not very relevant to our purpose. {T. ii.}

	spondee		⎯ ⎯	vīrtūs
Disyllables are	pyrrhic	as	◡ ◡	dĕŭs
	trochee		⎯ ◡	pānĭs
	iambus		◡ ⎯	ămās

	molossus		⎯ ⎯ ⎯	māgnātēs
	tribrach		◡ ◡ ◡	dŏmĭnŭs
	dactyl		⎯ ◡ ◡	scrībĕrĕ
There are eight trisyllables	anapaest	as	◡ ◡ ⎯	pĭĕtās
	bacchius		◡ ⎯ ⎯	hŏnēstās
	antibacchius		⎯ ⎯ ◡	aūdīrĕ
	amphimacer		⎯ ◡ ⎯	chārĭtās
	amphibrach		◡ ⎯ ◡	vĕnīrĕ

Moreover, feet arranged in the right number and order make a verse.

In fact, a verse is an utterance composed of the right number of feet. In order to compose a verse, we must learn first of all to distribute feet properly, that is, what they call scansion.

Scansion also refers to the proper symmetry of the verses in each foot.

A scansion can also have synaloepha, eclipsis, synaeresis, diaeresis and caesura.

Synaloepha

A synaloepha is the elision of a vowel before another one in two different words, as sera nimis vit’ est crastina, viu’ hodie, and sometimes a single word is created, as

dii	deinde	semiustus
diis	deinceps	deest
iidem	semianimis	deerat	and similar ones
iisdem	semihomo	deerit

But heu and ô are never cut. {n. p.}

Eclipsis

An eclipsis occurs every time the letter m is suppressed alongside its vowel, if the following word begins with another vowel, as monstr’ horren’ inform’ ingens, cui lumen ademptum.

Synaeresis

A synaeresis is the contraction of two syllables into one, as seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta.

Diaeresis

A diaeresis is when a syllable is divided and two are made from it, as debuerant fusos evolüisse suos.

Caesura

A caesura is when, after an absolute foot, a short syllable at the end of a word is extended.

Its kinds are:

Trihemimer, consisting of a foot and a syllable, as pectoribus inhians spirantia consula exta.

Penthemimer, consisting of two feet and a syllable, as omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori.

Hephthemimer, consisting of three feet and a syllable, as ostentans artem pariter, arcumque sonantem.

Eneemimer, consisting of four feet and a syllable, as ille latus niveum molli fultus, hyacinto.

Of the Types of Verses

The types of verses we decided to mainly discuss here are: heroic, elegiac, asclepiad, sapphic, phaleuciac, iambic.

Heroic Verse

A heroic verse, which is also called hexameter, consists of six feet in number, but of two types, dactyl and spondee. The fifth foot requires exclusively a dactyl, {T. iii.} the sixth a spondee; the other feet one or the other as we wish, as Tītȳrĕ tū pătŭlæ̆ rĕcŭbāns sūb tēgmĭnĕ sāgī.

Sometimes a spondee is also found in the fifth foot, as clara deûm soboles magnum Iovis incrementum.

The last syllable of every verse is not changed.

Elegiac Verse

An elegiac verse, which is also called pentameter, consists of two penthemimers, the first of which comprehends two dactyl, spondee or alternate feet with a long syllable; the latter has two feet as well, but both dactyls with a long syllable, as rēs ēst sōllĭcĭtū plēnă tĭmōrĭs ămor.

Asclepiad Verse

An asclepiad verse consists of a penthemimer – that is, of a spondee. a dactyl and a long syllable – and then two dactyls, as Mēcoēnās ătăvīs ēdĭtĕ rēgĭbŭs.

Sapphic Verse

A sapphic verse consists of a trochee, a spondee, a dactyl, and two half trochees, as iām sătīs tērrīs nĭvĭs ātquĕ dīrae.

Nevertheless, in this type of verse, after three verses we add an adonic, which consists of a dactyl and a spondee, as integer vitae, scelerisque purus non eget Mauri iaculis, nec arcu, nec venenatis gravida sagittis fūscĕ phărētra.

Phaleuciac or Hendecasyllable Verse

A phaleuciac or hendecasyllable verse consists of {n. p.} a spondee, a dactyl, and thenthree trochees, as quōqūò dīffŭgĭās păvēns Măbīlĭ, nostrum non poteris latere nasum.

Archilochian Iambic Verse

A right iambic verse only consists of iambi, as sŭis ĕt īpsă Rōmă vīrĭbūs rŭīt.

Nevertheless, it sometimes takes in odd feet a tribrach, a spondee, a dactyl or an anapaest instead of a iambus, and in even feet a tribrach and more rarely a spondee.

This verse is divided in two types, dimeter and trimeter or senarius.

Dimeter

A dimeter consists of four feet, as ō cārmĭnūm dūlcēs nŏtae, quas ore pulchra melleo fundis, lyraeque succinis.

Trimter or senarius

A trimeter consists of six feet, as qūi nōs dāmnānt, sūnt hīstrĭōnēs māxĭmī.

Nam Curios simulant, vivunt Bacchanalia.

Of the Length of Initial Syllables

The length of initial syllables follows seven parameters.

	position		composition
	vowel before vowel		preposition
	diphthong		rule
	derivation

{n. p.}

Position

A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant in the same word is long in any position, as ventus, axis, patrizo.

If a consonant ends the word before and the following word also begins with a consonant, the preceding vowel will also be in a long position, as maior sum quam cui possit fortuna nocere.

The syllables ior, sum, sit, are in a long position.

But if the previous word ends with a short vowel and the following begins with two consonants, sometimes but quite rarely it is extended, as occulta spolia, et plures de pace triumphos.

A short vowel before a mute and with a following liquid is made into a common, as patris, volucris.

But long vowels are not changed, as aratrum, simulacrum.

A Vowel before Another

A vowel before another in the same word is always short, as Deus, praeamplus.

Genitives in ius as unius, illius, etc. where an i is commonly found make an exception, although it is always short in alterius.

We must also exclude the genitives and accusatives of the fifth declension, for an e between two i is long, as faciei, which otherwise does not happen, as rei, spei, fidei.

Fi in fio is also long, unless after the e follows an r, as fierem, fieri. Juvenal, sic fiunt octo mariti. Idem. Quod fieri non posse putes.

The interjection ohe has a palindromic first syllable.

A vowel before another in Greek words often becomes long, as dicite Pierides. Respice Laerten. And in possessives, as Aeneia nutrix. Rhodopeius Orpheus. {n. p.}

Diphthong

Every diphthong is long for the Latins, as aurum, neuter, musae, unless it follows a vowel, as praeire.

Derivation

Derivatives share the same length as primitives, as amator, amicus, amabilis, with a short first syllable from amo.

Nevertheless, there are a few exceptions of syllable that are derived from short ones but still extend their initial syllable. Some types are

	vox, vocis from voco		iucundus from iuvo
	lex, legis from lego		iunior from iuvenis
	rex, regis from rego		mobilis from moveo
	sedes from sedeo		humanus from homo
	iumentum from iuvo		vomer from vomo
	fomes and fomentum from foveo		pedor from pede

On the contrary, there are some which are derived from long syllables but ake a short one, as

dux, ducis from duco		genui from gigno
dicax, maledicus		fragor	from frango
and this kind from dico		fragilis
fides from fio		noto, notas from notu
arena	from areo	nato, natas from natu
arista		disertus from dissero
posui from pono		sopor from sopio

And some others of both kinds that are left to scholars to be observed in their readings.

Composition

Compound words follow the length of simple words, as

	potens		impŏtens		lego, legis		perlĕgo
	solor		consôlor		lego, legas		allêgo

Nevertheless, these short words derived from the long ones make an exception

	innuba		from nubo		deiero and		from iuro
	pronuba				peiero

And if there are others of this kind. {U}

Preposition

Among the prepositions, these are always extended a, e, de, prae, se, unless when there is a following vowel, as unda dehiscens.

And sudibus praeustis for Vergil. Also pro is long except in these,

procella		profiteor
profugus		profundus
protervus		proficiscor
pronepos		profari
propago pro stirpe		propero
prophanus		profugio
		profecto
procuro	propulso
profundo	propago, propagas
propello

Have an uncertain first syllable

Propheta and propino are Greek words for the short o and therefore have a short first syllable.

Also di is extended, except in dirimo and disertus.

The other prepositions are abbreviated if it their position allows it. They are of this kind

ad	sub
ob	re
ab	in	etc.

Rule

Every disyllabic past tense has a long initial syllable, as legi, emi.

	fidi	scidi
Exceptions	bibi	steti
	dedi	tuli

Likewise, past tenses with a repeated syllable have a short first syllable, as {n. p.}

pependi	pepedi	pupugi
tetendi	tutudi	didici
totondi	fefelli	cecǐdi from cado
momordi	tetigi	cecîdi from cedo

And in fact, a disyllabic supine likewise has a long first syllable, as

motum		quitum	rutum
latum	except	situm	ratum
lotum		litum	datum
cretum		itum	satum

And also citum from cieo, cies, because citum from cio, cis of the fourth conjugation has a long first syllable. Here pupils should learn to observe the usual lengths of the first syllables according to the poets, whose sorts are

Britannus	Criticus	Hymen
Bithynus	Curetes	Italus
Cacus	Diana	Liquor
Cosyra	Fidenae	Liquidus
Crathis	Gradivus	Lycas	and similar words
Pachinus	Hinulus	Orion
Palatium	Pyrene	Rudo
Pelion	Rubigo	Sychaeus
	Rutilius	Sicanus

Of the Middle Syllables

Middle syllables can be learned partly through the same rules of the first syllables, and partly also through the lengthening caused by the genitive case, and through the rule of conjugation.

We think that the lengthening caused by the genitive of polysyllabic nouns has already been discussed enough in the section on the genders of nouns, which you may refer to if you have any doubts about this subject. A constant reading and study of the best learned poets will easily supply the rest.

Pupils learned the rule of conjugation from the rudiments they have assimilated, {U. ii.} that is: a long a is in itself a sign of the first conjugation, except in the verb do and its compounds when they are of this conjugation, as

	dămus		dăbis
	circundămus		circundăbis etc.

Besides, they learned that the syllables rimus and ritis in the preterperfect tense of the subjunctive mood must always be taken as short syllables, whereas in the future they must be long in a prose speech, but in poetry both short and long ones are found, as Aldus claims,

preterperfect		amavérimus		future		amaverîmus
		amavéritis				amaverîtis

Moreover, middle syllables change in the poets’ writings, as these which we have added

connūbium or	Malêa	or			Malĕa
connŭbium	Bathâvus			Bathăvus
ficēdula	Pharsālia		Sidōnius			and similar ones
ficĕdula	Pharsălia		Sidŏnius

Latin adjectives in inus extend the second to last syllable, as

	clandestinus		matutinus
	mediastinus		vespertinus
	parietinus		repentinus
		diutinus		serotinus
		crastinus		oleaginus
except the following		pristinus		faginus
		perendinus		cedrinus
		ornotinus		carbasinus

And likewise nouns in ινοσ derived from Greek, as

	cristallinus		hyacintinus		etc.
	myrrhinus		adamantinus

Practice will teach you all the rest in a more profitable way than the rules of grammarians, who are wont to discuss the length of middle syllables without any purpose. Therefore, leaving these aside, we are {n. p.} now ready to discuss final syllables.

Of the Final Syllables

Since the final syllables are equal to or exceed the number of the letters themselves, we do not deem it unnecessary to review them in order.

First, words ending in a are extended, as

ama		puta
contra	except	ita
erga		quia

And also nominatives, accusatives, and vocatives in a, whatever gender, number, and declension they might be, except the vocatives in a from Greek words in as, as o Aenea, o Thoma.

Numerals in ginta have a common final syllable, but more frequently a long one, as triginta, quadraginta.

B, D, T

Words ending in b, d, t are short, as ab, ad, caput.

Words ending in e are short, as

	mare		lege
	pene		scribe

All the words of the fifth declension ending in e make an exception, as die, fide, together with the adverbs coming from them, as

	hodie		quare
	quotidie		quadere
	pridie		eare
	postridie		and similar

And also the second person singular of the active imperatives of the second conjugation, as

	doce		mane
	move		cave

{U. iii.}

Monosyllables ending in e are extended as well, as

me		que
te	except	ve	enclitic conjugations
se		ne

Moreover, also adverbs ending in e that come from adjectives are long

	docte
as	pulchre	to which are added	ferme
	valde instead of valide		fere

Also bene and male are extended.

Finally, words written with ϰ by the Greeks are extended by nature, whatever be their case, gender, or number

as		Lethe		cete
		Anchise		Tempe

Words ending in I are long, as

	domini	amari
	magistri	doceri
	mihi	ubi
except	tibi	ibi which are common
	sibi

However, nisi and quasi are abbreviated. Greek datives and vocatives, whose genitive singular ends in a short os, are of the same sort, as

	Palladi	Amarylli
these	Phyllidi	Alexi
	Minoidi	Daphni

Words ending in l are abbreviated, as

	animal		mugil
	Hannibal		sol
	mel		consul

Except nil contracted from nihil. And certain foreign nouns in el, as {n. p.}

	Michael		Raphael
	Gabriel		Daniel

Words ending in n are extended, as

	Paean		Xenophon
	Hymen		non
	quin		daemon
		Forsan		tamen
except		forsitan		attamen
		an		verumtamen etc.

Also word in in are abbreviated, as well as their compounds, as

	exin		dein
	subin		proin

The words that are cut through apocope must also be added to them, as

	men’		audin’
	viden’		nemon’

Also nouns in en, whose genitive in inis becomes abbreviated, as

	carmen		pecten
	crimen		tibicen

Also Greek words in on with short o, whatever be their case, as

nominative		Ilion	accusative		Caucason
		Pelion			Pylon

Also some nouns in in, as Alexin, in yn, as Ityn, and in an from the nominative in a, as

nominative		Iphigenia	accusative		Iphigenian
		Aegina			Aeginan

Nouns in an from nominatives in as are abbreviated, as

nominative		Aeneas	accusative		Aenean
		Marsyas			Marsyan

Words ending in o are common, as {n. p.}

	amo		porro
	virgo		legendo, gerundium

Except the oblique cases in o, which are always extended, as

this		domino	from this		templo
		servo			damno

And adverbs derived from nouns, as

	tanto		liquido		primo
	quanto		falso		manifesto etc.
except	sedulo	crebro		which are common
	mutuo	sero

Moreover, modo and quomodo are always abbreviated.

Also cito, ut and ambo, duo, and homo, are barely found in extended form.

Monosyllables in o are also extended, as do, sto, and also ergô to express cause.

And also Greek nouns in ω, whatever be their case, as

these		Sappho	of this		Androgeo	this		Atho
		Dido			Apollo			Apollo

Words ending in r are abbreviated, as

	Caesar		vir
	torcular		uxor
	per		turtur

Cor is found in extended form in Ovid, as molle meum levibus cor est violabile telis.

	far	ver
These are also extended	lar	fur
	nar	cur
		compar
also par with its compounds, as		impar
		dispar

Also certain Greek nouns in er, which end in ϰρ, as {n. p.}

	aer		character
	crater		aether
	stater		Soter

Except pater and mater, which for the Latins have a short last syllable.

Words ending in s with a vowel have the same ending, like

	as
	es		os
	is		us

First of all, words ending in as are extended, as

	amas		maiestas
	Musas		bonitas

except Greek nouns, whose genitive singular ends in dos, as

	Archas	genitive		Archados
	Pallas			Pallados

and except plural accusatives of derived nouns , as

	Heros	Heroos	accusative plural		Heroas
	Phyllis	Phyllidos			Phyllidas

Words ending in es are long, as

	Anchises		doces
	sedes		patres

Except nouns in es of the third declension, which abbreviate the second to last syllable of the derived genitive, as

	miles		dives
	seges		praepes
	aries		ceres
	abies		pes, with compounds
	paries

also es from sum and its compounds are abbreviated, whatever be their mood, as {n. p.}

	potes		prodes
	ades		obes

Penes can be added to them, together with the plural and neuter nominatives of Greek words, as

	Hippomanes		Cyclopes
	Cacoethes		Naides

Words ending in is are short, as

	paris		tristis
	panis		hilaris

Except the plurals of the oblique cases in is, which are extended, as

	Musis		dominis
	mensis		templis

Also quis instead of quibus, with words extending the second to last syllable of the derived genitive case, as

	Samnis		Samnitis
	Salamis		Salaminis

Add also the Latin or Greek words ending in the diphthong eis, whatever be their numbers or cases, as

	Simoeis		parteis
	Pyroeis		omneis

And also all monosyllables, as vis, lis, except the nominatives is and quis, and bis for Ovid.

Add to these the second persons singular of verbs in is, whose second persons plural end in îtis, the second to last syllable being extended, together with the future tenses of the subjunctive in ris, as

audis		audîtis
velis	plural	velîtis
dederis		dederîtis

Words ending in os are extended, as

	honos		dominos
	nepos		servos

Except compos, impos, and os, osis, and Greek words ending in short o, {n. p.} as

	Delos		Pallados
	Chaos		Phyllidos

Words ending in us are abbreviated, as

	famulus		tempus
	regius		amamus

The words extending the second to last syllable of the derived genitive make an exception, as

	Salus	genitive		Salûtis
	Tellus			Tellûris

All the words of the fourth declension in us are also long, except the singular nominative and vocative cases, as huius, hae, has; o manus.

Also add to these monosyllables, as

	crus		mus
	thus		sus etc.

And also Greek words ending in the diphthong us, whatever be their case, as

this		Panthus	of this		Sapphus
		Melampus			Clius

And the name Iesus that is to be worshipped by all devout people.

Finally, all the words ending in u are extended, as

	manu		amatu
	genu		diu

The End.

Εάν ἦσ φιλομαθήσ ἔσῃ πολυμαθήσ {n. p.}

London

From the printing house of Thomas Berthelet. With exclusive privilege for printing. Year of the incarnate word 1542

	labes, labis		mater, matris
	pestis, pestis		cubile, cubilis
	vis genitive vis		caro, carnis

	Agnus		fluvius
	Vulgus		chorus
	Lucus		populus, instead of natione

	Orpheus		Orphea, Ovidius, Orpheon
	Orphei, or Orpheos		Orpheu
	Orphei		Orpheo

abeundi		ambiendi
abeundo	except	ambiendo
abeundum		ambiendum

	tus			doctus
however, the past tense is in	sus		as	visus
	xus			nexus
the future, one indeed in rus, as		lecturus
but the other in dus, as		legendus

Optative mode

the present tense singular

God grant I love

amem, ames, amet. Plural utinam amemus, ametis, ament

as, at. Plural utinam amus, atis, ant