Grammar Book on the Analogy of the English Language

Grammar Book on the Analogy of the English Language

Author Thomas Tonkis, the Englishman

From the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity at the University of Cambridge

1612 A.D. {1}

{n. p.}

To the illustrious Prince Frederick, Fifth Elector of his name of the Roman Empire and Arch-dapifer to the Count Palatine up to the Rhine and Duke of both Bavarias etc.

Thomas Tonkis dedicates these writings. {2}

{n. p.}

On Letters

Chapter One

Our letters are twenty-four:

A in our language sounds weaker than the a of the French, as apple, answer, ancient.

But at the end of the word before double l, it is pronounced like for the French, with a long and open sound, as all, small, tall, fall.

So at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the words that have a consonant after l, as calmness, unfalty, falt.

B as b for the French, benjamin.

C as for the French, before e and j with a hissing like s, before a, o, u, as x or k.

Ch as ch of the Hispanics, “mucho”, much; or as c before e or j for the Italics, as “cento”: cheerful, chimney, chink, chosen.

The words derived from Greek make an exception, as eunuch, in which ch is like x.

D like the d of the French, at the end of the word is actually heard more clearly, as proffered, loved, not profferet, lovet, as the French are wont.

E at the beginning and in the middle is like the e of the French, at the end it almost disappears; however sometimes it is rashly not added; in fact, it prolongs the vowel that comes before and makes it much clearer and more audible, as spit, spite, clock, cloke, pil, pile.

E before n at the end of a word sounds indistinctly, as sweetén, stréngthen, lénghthen.

E after l at the end of a word sounds indistinctly, as tíckle, bríttle, fíckle, trémble, thímble.

E before a single l, only when e is preceded by the consonant v, sounds indistinctly, as divél, drivél, évél, shovél.

E never sounds like a, as accident, non “accidant” like for the French.

F like the f of the French, as fill, filbert.

G before the vowels e and j is like the g of the Italics, as ginger, gerk.

Give and its compounds make an exception, as well as girl, girt, gimlet.

All the words that have n before g also make an exception, since they are all active participles, as loving, thriving, for g is pronounced like γ* as finger, ringer, sing, fling; ginger is an exception.

G before u is like gu of the French; languish, anguish make an exception, as they sound like gu of the Italics.

G before h in the middle syllable gives a guttural sound, as spright, light, affright, naught, taught, fraught, raught, caught.

H is read without aspiration very rarely: having, hart, hasty, high.

H adds an aspiration to the litter to which it is conjoined, as thigh.

H disappears in honest, host, hostess, honour and their derivatives. {3}

I is a consonant before a vowel of the same syllable, it is a vowel before a consonant.

I as a consonant sounds like the g of the Italics, as javelin, jest, jade, jett, jealous, joyful, joint, junket, justle, justice.

I at the beginning and in the middle of the word is like the i of the French, as intimate, incident.

I as a vowel at the end of the word is uttered with a stronger sound, as hability, in which bili is like French, ty like English; however, in poetry it is mostly changed, and we often write ie instead of y.

K as κ, kalender, knave.

We have ’όμικρον and ’ωμέγα, with a single graphic sign and a different sound.

O before two consonants or a consonant cluster, at the beginning or in the middle of a word, is uttered indistinctly, as often, importunate, other, brother; but before a single consonant, it is like w, as open, over.

O at the end of the word, if the sound of the consonant is stopped, is indistinct, as not, begot, spot; or if a vowel follows, it is like w, as note; the endings with the consonant v and e make an exception, as love, move, prove, above, behove, etc.

O before n at the end of the word is sounds very indistinctly, as tomson, peason, contribution, oration, reason.

O before w, in know, grow, snow, sow, row, flow, and their compounds, and in billow, willow, pillow, crow, elbow, is like w.

Oo like ou of the French: good, blood, flood, rood, brood, mood.

P like p of the French, as princess, palsgrave, pretty.

Ph is softer, as φ Phillip.

Q is never written without u, and sound like qu of the Etruscans, as question.

R like r of the French, rustic, rule.

S between two vowels, as z, muse.

Sh is like ch for the French, as shirt, sheet, languish, polish, or as for the Italics.

T is like the t of the French, tiding, tilting.

Th sometimes like θ, sometimes like d of the Hispanics at the end of the word, “verdad”.

Th in the middle of the word is always like d for the Hispanics, as mother, brother, other, smother; the words that can be traced back to a Greek origin make an exception, as Athenien.

Also these words are exceptions: metheglin, strengthening, lengthening. {n. p.}

Th at the end of the word is like θ, as loveth, proveth, speaketh, and endless of such cases. Few verbs make an exception, as to bathe, to bequeath, to clothe, as well as these nouns, sithe, sheath, tithe, wreath, and underneath, in which th is like d for the Hispanics.

Th at the beginning is like θ, as theatre, thirsty, think, except for that, then, thence, there, they, thine, this, these, those, theather, thou, though.

U between two consonants is a vowel, as pull, full, pule.

At the beginning of the word before a vowel, it is a consonant, as veal; before a consonant, it is a vowel, as upon, upright, uphold.

In the middle of a word between two vowels, it is a consonant and marks the beginning of the syllable, as received.

At the end of the word between two vowels, the latter of which being e, it is a veiled consonant, as love, move, etc. Also after l or r, as twelve, starve, carve, etc.

U as a consonant is like u for the French, or a digamma, villanie, vile.

U as a vowel before a single consonant is pronounced as if a j were interposed, as repute, refute, almost as repiute, refiute; but before two consonants that sound j is removed, as putting, fulfill, and in many such cases; also at the end of the word before a silent consonant, as but, put, shut, etc.

W is pronounced in a specific way, as will, wilful, woodcock, winter, swear, sweep, sweeten, swill, dwell, twibill, twenty, twelve.

W sometimes follows s, d, t in the same syllable, as in the examples given before; when it is joined to other consonants, it is never joined in the same syllable, but often in different ones, as wormwood.

W after a, e, o in the same syllable sounds like u in the diphthongs au, eu, ou, as shaw, sew, wow, almost as shau, seu, wou.

Wh with great aspiration, as what, whether, when, whom, who.

X as x of the Latins, as box, pox, ox.

Y as j, hence it is often written instead of j.

Z as ζ Graecum.

On Diphthongs

Ae is like for the Latins.

Ea like masculine e for the French, as bread, dead, feast.

Ej like ej of the Latins, as they.

Eu like εu of the Greeks, greu, deu.

Oa like ω, oak, smoak.

Oj like oy in moy, as annoy, boy, toy.

Ou is more open than ou for the French, as thou. {4}

Almost no letter in our language is silent, especially when we speak distinctly.

The consonants at the end of words are uttered very sharply.

Derivation and composition do not change the sound of the letters.

On Articles

Chapter Two

The indefinite article has the power to denote and specify uncertain and indefinite things, as a man, “un homme”; the man, “l’homme”.

The finite article is put before common nouns either in general terms – as the earth, “la terre” – or in specific terms – as the nature of virtue, “la nature de vertu”.

Proper nouns and pronouns do not have articles unless for reasons of emphasis, as the Harry of Harries; the only she or he of the town, in which she and he are used instead of nouns and mean “man” and “woman”.

Declension of Articles

In this section we will deal with what pertains contraction without rules; then, we lay out all things in this way, so that we describe how to speak and write first in a proper way, and then in a vulgar and contracted way. {n. p.}

Finite article: the, “le” or “la”

In the vernacular and in more shortened ways of speaking, as well as for poets, the article the with nouns is contracted and joined to the vowel at the beginning of the following word as if it were a part of speech, as the ass, th’ass, όὐνος; the other, th’other, ατερος; the image, th’image, and it always like this.

Sometimes before h, when the h is mute, as th’host, th’honor, th’honest.

Indefinite article: a, “un” or “une”

The article a, if the following word begins with a vowel or mute h, takes n to bridge over the hiatus, as an ox, an ass, an evening, an host, an honest, an honorable man.

On the Variations of Nouns

Chapter Three

The declension of nouns is made by putting articles before, as

Nouns with indefinite articles are varied in the same way, as a man, of a man, to a man, etc. {5}

On Gender

Articles, nouns, and participles do not have genders.

Among the pronouns, he and she are distinguished by gender, that is, they refer to words for which there is a difference of sex, as he is here; she is here.

On Number

The singular and plural is the same for articles, adjectives and participles, as the man, the men; honest man, honest men; loving man, loving men; loved man, loved men.

The plural of nouns is made by adding s to the singular, as hand, hands; stone, stones; bone, bones.

Nouns ending in i or y, in ss, in s preceded by a consonant, and in x, take an e in the plural, as infirmity, infirmities; charity, charities; hardiness, hardinesses; purse, purses; box, boxes.

Words ending with f change f in the consonant v, as calf, calves; beef, beeves; thief, thieves; knife, knives; wife, wives; life, lives.

These words are irregular: man, men; woman, women; sow, “truie”, swine; ox, “boeuf”, oxen; bee, “mouche a miel”, been; mouse, “souris”, mice; tooth, “dens”, teeth; louse, “poux”, lise; foot, “pied”, feet; cow, “vache”, kine; child, children.

On the Analogy of Nouns

Chapter Four

On Adjectives

By adding the syllable less to the end of a noun we obtain an adjective of the opposite meaning, which translates the Greek privative α, as fearless, ἂφοβος; harmeless, ἂκακος; fatherless, motherless, brotherless, moneyless.

The syllable un at the beginning of a word acquires a privative value, as from fained, “feint”, comes unfained, “non feint”; faithfulness, unfaithfulness. And other privative forms can be found for the same word: we can say unharmless, ἀάατος, or ἐκ ἄκακος. However, these forms are not frequent, although the language analogy can allow us some freedom. {n. p.}

If we add ful to a noun, we get an adjective with the same meaning and signifying some sort of fullness, as hopeful. For full means “completely filled with”, as fearful, harmful, sinful, guileful, mindful.

Ly at the end of a noun makes an adjective with the same meaning; ly, “alike”, hence the words ending in ly signify similitude, as lovely, fatherly, motherly, brotherly, sisterly, friendly.

Y at the end of a noun makes an adjective with the same meaning, as water, watery; aery, earthy, stony, fiery.

En added to the noun makes an adjective related to the material, as beech, beechen; oak, oaken; gold, golden.

When the syllable some is added to a noun or adjective, the meaning does not change, as bright, brightsome; light, lightsome; gladsome, noisome.

Ish given to a noun makes an adjective and does not change the meaning, as water, waterish; salt, saltish; fool, foolish; child, childish; slut, sluttish.

But when it is given to an adjective, it diminishes the meaning, as red, reddish; bitter, bitterish; sweetish, yellowish, whitish.

On Nouns

If we add the syllable ness to the adjective, we get a noun with the same meaning, as fearlessness, harmlessness, motherlessness, fatherlessness, hopefulness, fearfulness, loveliness, fatherliness, friendliness, earthiness, stonyness, brightsomeness, gladsomeness, saltishness, bitterishness. {6}

The same happens with the main adjective, as white, whiteness; good, goodness; light, lightness; smooth, smoothness.

Words that can contain something, when ful is added, make nouns that signify a measure, as spoon, spoonful; hand, handful, “poignee”; house, “maison”, houseful; townful, shipful; spit, spitful.

But words that can be contained either by a thing or by an idea, when ful is added, make adjectives, as the abovementioned fearful, disdainful. This form is perfectly suitable for words that signify emotions or something similar, as hopeful, spiteful, ireful, guileful.

When hood or head are added to nouns, they denote a quality, as manhood; womanhood; knighthood, “la chevalerie”; priesthood.

Sometimes to adjectives, as livelihood; beastlihead, “bestialité”.

Ship at the end denote office or function, as consulship; praetorship, censorship; worship; lordship, “signiorie”.

There are other forms of termination, as kingdom; earldom, “counté”.

On Verbals

It is said of nouns coming from the theme of verbs ending with a vowel with the addition of r, ending with a consonant with the addition of er, as to love, a lover; to dispute, a disputer; to sing, a singer; to cry, a crier; to hurt, a hurter; to knock, a knocker; to quaff, a quaffer; to hunt, a hunter.

Those that end in ment, come from verbs ending in dge, sh, ise or ze, as judgement, abridgement, banishment, ravishment, punishment, impoverishment, disguisement, amazement. {n. p.}

On the Analogy of Adverbs

Adverbs are formed from the main adjectives through the apposition of ly at the end, as honest, honestly; modest, modestly; fine, finely, “bravement”; true, truly, “vrayement”; they can also be formed from derivatives, as friendlessly, fearefully, earthyly, lightsomely, saltishly, reddishly, woodenly, goodlily, friendlily; they also come from active participles, as lovingly, stealingly, and often from passives ones, as amazedly.

On the Degrees of Comparison

Normal and regular nouns make the comparative with er and the superlative with est.

Indeed adjectives, participles and adverbs make use of this form extensively.

Otherwise they are compared with more and less, or too much, too little, whose superlative is most, e.g.:

The following ones are irregular:

On Diminutives

We rarely admit diminutives unless in proper names with a frequent use, as Richard, Dick; Thomas, Tom; William, Will; Robert, Robin, etc. Christofer, Kit; Elizabeth, Bess; Catherine, Cate, etc.

Sometimes in apellatives, as lamb, lambkin; bull, bulchin, or bullock; chick, chicken; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; suckling; dear, darling; stare, starling; capon, caponet. {7}

On Pronouns

Chapter Five

Demonstrative pronouns are I, thou, he, she.

We add the auxiliary pronoun myself to the ones mentioned above, as I myself, thou thyself, he himself; genitive: of me myself, of thee thyself, of him himself.

Plural: we ourselves, you yourselves, they themselves; genitive: of us ourselves etc., of you yourselves, of them themselves etc., in the other cases.

Possessive pronouns

When the following word begins with a vowel, we need the subjunctive form instead of the prepositives, as mine aunt, mine uncle, but this is done only in the singular number.

The possessive pronoun never takes the article as for the Guals “le mien” etc.

The pronoun which or that translates Latin “qui”, “quae” and “quod” refers to things or people.

Who only refers to a person, as the man who loves you; never to a thing, that is why we do not say the stone who is hard, but the stone which or that is hard.

Who has whom in the other cases, as of whom, to whom, whom, from, by, with whom.

Whose translates Latin “cuius” or “quorum”, as whose book is this. {n. p.}

This singular, French “ce”; these plural, French “ces”. That, Latin “illud”; those, Latin “illa”.

His after a noun denotes possession, as Virgil his life; Scaevola his hand; Caesar his commentary etc. Often in written language and always when we speak, his is contracted with the noun, like this: Virgil’s life, Scaevola’s hand, Caesar’s commentary, Casaubon’s Polybius; but after nouns ending in s, like this: Polybius’us history, Claudius’is Messalina, Plautus’is comedies.

Thereof translates the en of the French, as he hath eaten thereof, “il en a mangé”.

On Verbs

Chapter Six

In our language there is only one conjugation of verbs, the verbs that from which are irregular.

In regular verbs, we must consider the theme first, then the aorist and passive participle, from which we make the past tenses.

The aorist of regular verbs is made from the theme by adding d if the the last letter is a vowed, as to love, aorist I loved; if it is a consonant, ed, as to omit, aorist I omitted.

The thematic letters are never changed.

Persons are always added to verbs.

The termination of plural persons does not differ from that of the first person singular.

The passive form is made from the passive participle and the substantive verb, as I am loved, “je suis aimé”; I am hurt, “je suis blessé”. {8}

“J’aime”

We use the double form of this tense indistinctly, but we use more often the first one, whereas we speak with the second form to express emphasis or questions.

“J’aimais”

This tense translates the aorist of the Greeks or the French, as I made, ἐποίησα, “je fis”.

This tense maintains the function of the Greek or French perfect preterite, as I have made, πεποίηχα, “j’ai fait”. {n. p.}

The first person singular and plural always denote the intention to act, in the other persons sometimes only an intention, sometimes a simple event in the future, as he will come, “il viendra”; he will be hanged, “il va être pendu”. First: “il sera pendu”.

This future tense expresses the need or certainty of an event in all persons and numbers; it often acquires the function of the imperative.

The second and third person of both numbers are sued for promised things and orders, but the first never does so; it is different for the Scots who, when they would say I will love, say I shall love you.

It is made from the future of the verb have and the participle of the preterite, hence there is a mixed meaning, in the French way “j‘aurai aimé”, I shall have written, γεγραφώς έσομαι, and intorrogatively, shall one have sent so many to hell?

Imperative

Let him love, literally, “sine illum amare” in Latin. {9}

Optative

The imperfect is like the aorist of the indicative, as I would to God, or I would (by contraction: I wud) I loved, etc.

The perfect like the perfect of the indicative: I pray God I have loved.

The pluperfect like the pluperfect of the indicative: I would to God, or I would I had loved.

The future like the present by adding hereafter, “cy-après”, as I pray God I love hereafter.

The conditional mood expresses a certain potential, permission or chance.

I can love conveys a potential in this first form, as hell cannot expect a king.

This form has the function of giving permission, as thou mayst expect this of me. First: you are allowed to do this etc., or you can etc., I may speak the truth; he may do me good expresses a chance.

It is made from the first form of the present, and it maintains the same function as of meaning, as I could say means “dicerem” or “poteram dicere” in Latin.

It is made from the second form of the present and keeps its meaning as to permission or chance. {n. p.}

I can have loved, Latin “possum amavisse”, “amaverim”.

I may have loved, Latin “forte an amaverim”.

   I might have killed him.

The future tense is not different from the present, as I may love hereafter, I can love hereafter.

Subjunctive

The present is like the present of the optative, as though I love, although I love.

Though I should love; thou shouldst labour; you should speak, “vous deuriez parler”. {10}

Infinitive

Present and imperfect: to love.

Perfect and pluperfect: to have loved.

Future: to love hereafter.

The active participle loving is made by adding ing to the theme of the verb. If the theme ends with a consonant, as to help, helping. Otherwise, if it ends with a vowel, we take the vowel off and add ing, as love, loving; move, moving.

The passive participle loved is not different from the aorist for regular verbs.

On the absolute verb I am, from which all passive verbs are made with the passive participle, as I am loved, I was loved, etc.

Indicative

Pluperfect    I had bene, thou hadst been, he had been etc.

Imperative

Optative

Potential

Subjunctive

Infinitive

We translate Latin compound verbs with prepositions by putting the translation of the prepositions after the verb, as “abeo”, I go away, or I go from; “adeo”, I go unto; “ineo”, I go into; “exeo”, I go out; “circumeo”, I go about; “subeo”, I go under; “colloquor”, I speak with; “concurro”, I run together; “disrumpo”, I break asunder; “refero”, I bring again; “superaddo”, I add moreover; “supercurro”, I run upon; “impono”, I set upon; “obiaceo”, I lie before etc.

Over only translates the Latin prepositions “super” and “trans”. However, in composition, though which it is combined with almost all verbs, over can signify defeating or overcoming something, as to overgo, to over-read, to overshoot, to overspeak, and endless cases like these. Also out has the same meaning, as to outride, to outleap, etc.

Over also implies an excess in an action, as to overpraise, to overprise, to oversell, to overstudy, to over-read, and many more of this kind; the same meaning also applies to out.

Under means the opposite: to undersell, to sell at a lower price than what is worth. To such verbs we add an accusative, or a noun, or a pronoun with self, as he over-readeth himself, he over-plougheth the oxen, he over-laboureth his servants; under has this pregnant meaning as for the Latins and Greeks.

With translates the Latin “cum”, but in composition it stands either for from, as to withdraw, withhold; or for against, as to withstand, and it rarely compounded with other verbs.

Un gives the verb with which it is compounded the opposite meaning, as to fold, to unfold; to clothe, to unclothe, a form of composition that all verbs can take.

Mis in composition means indirectly or badly, as to misinterpret, to mislead, sometimes with nouns, as mishap.

The first supine of the Latins is translated sometimes with the infinitive, as “eo visum”, I go to see, sometimes with the active participle with a, as “eo venatum”, I go a hunting; “piscatum eo”, I go a fishing; “eunt bibitum”, they go a drinking; “eunt stellas speculatum”, they go a star gazing.

Very often verbs are made from adjectives by adding en, as sweet, “doux”; to sweeten, “adoucir”; sharp, to sharpen, and endless cases of this kind.

They are also made from almost all nouns, as a head, to head, (but to behead means “to cut the head”); a finger, to finger; a hand, to handle; silver, to silver; a board, to board, “recevoir en pension”.

The passive participles of these verbs are frequently used, as a man well landed, “un homme qui a beaucoup de terre”; land well-watered, “terre là où il y a beaucoup d’eau”; a country well-meadowed, well- woodded, well-town‘d, well-villaged, “un pais plein de prés, de bois, de villes, de villages”, and countless such cases.

On after the verb indicates the continuation of an action, as to speak on. Sometimes it is the same with upon, as to set on. {n. p.}

Be in compounds reinforces the meaning, as to bewail; to bethink; to besmear; to betake, as he betaketh himself to his book; to bespit; to foul, to befoul, and so in many others.

Anomalies listed in alphabetical order:

Thema       Aorist           Participle